fc 


>  ^ 


IN   MEMORiAM 
BERNARD   MOSES 


^^^ 


OKM.i;  \l.  I 'I-    I>1\1-|MN    i-oi;kii;1(>  1>1A/. 
I'rcNlck'iii  1)1  ilie  Mi'Mcan  Itepulillf. 


Edition  for  the  World's   Fair   Exposition. 


]\)e  F{i(;l7e5  of  /T\?xi(;o 


AND 


ITS  INSTITUTIONS. 


ADOLFO  DUCLOS  SALINAS. 


ST.   LOUIS: 
Nrxox-JoxES  Printing  Co. 

1S93. 


BERNARD  MOSES 


Jl^e  I^iel^ej  of  /T^exieo. 


TO  THE   GENERAL  OF  DIVISION, 
MR.  PORFIRIO  DIAZ, 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MEXICO. 

Sir:  This  work,  although   it  contains  many  ouARiNa 

dkficiexcies,  must  possess  for  you  one  great  merit  ; 

that  it  deals  with  the  study  of  the  mexican 

Nation,  to  which  you  have  consecrated, — 

NOT  without  great  SACRIFICES,  THE  BEST  PORTION 
OF    YOUR    LIFE, THE    SUM    COMPLETE    OF    YOUR    ENER- 
GIES.     I  HAVE  THEREFORE  PRESUMED  TO  DEDICATE  IT  TO  YOU. 

VERY    RESPECTFULLY, 

ADOLFO    DUCLOS    SaLINAS. 

(3) 


783709 


BOOK     I. 


PRELIMINARY   SURVEY. 

(5) 


PREFACE. 

MEXICO  AND  HER  REVOLUTIONS. 

I.  Before  passing  in  review  the  manifold  sources  of 
wealth  possessed  by  the  territory  of  Mexico ;  before  com- 
mencing the  study  of  those  elements  of  greatness  and  of 
prosperity  but  ill-developed  upon  which  our  Republic  can 
count;  before  enumerating  the  list  of  her  actual  conquests, 
let  us  look  over  the  arena  in  which  they  have  been  realized. 
Let  us  take  a  rapid  glance  at  that  stormy  period  which  im- 
mediately preceded  our  own,  but  of  which  now  remain  only 
recollections  and  traditions.  The  bloody  and  lamentable 
picture  we  are  about  to  present,  without  extenuation  of  any 
kmd,  will  not  serve  so  much  to  condemn  the  men  of  past 
generations,  as  to  show  that  if  in  the  midst  of  so  much 
strife  they  have  found  time  to  do  something  in  behalf  of  the 
moral  and  material  development  of  the  Republic,  their 
deeds  should  rather  be  enrolled  in  the  list  of  heroisms. 

The  revolutionary  period  commences  where  the  war  of 
Independence  ended.  Hardly  had  the  empire  been  consti- 
tuted when,  in  1823,  Santa-Ana  revolted,  proclaiming  the 
Federation,  and  in  1824  Don  Jose  Maria  Lobato  gave  in  his 
adherence  to  the  revolutionary  plan.  In  August  of  the 
same  year  Don  Antonio  and  Don  Manuel  Leon  rose  in  arms 
in  Oaxaca  and  in  support  of  the  cause  of  Lobato ;  and  in 
1827,  Bravo  and  his  followers  announced  the  plan  of 
October  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards.  On  the  30th 
November,  1828,  the  revolution  of  "  La  Acordada  "  broke 
out  in  the  Capital  ;  in  1829  there  was  carried  into  effect  the 
expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  which  in  its  disastrous  industrial 
consequences  was  equivalent  to  the  worst  kind  of  revolu- 

(7) 


8  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

tion,  and  which  brought  in  its  train  the  Spanish  invasion  of 
the  mouth  of  July  of  the  same  year.  In  December  also 
of  the  same  year  General  Bustamante  revolted  in  Jalapa, 
Guerrero  went  to  his  encounter,  and  while  the  brothers 
Kayon  were  in  revolt  in  the  Capital,  Bustamante  assumed 
the  presidency ;  not  that  the  revolutionary  disturbance 
came  therefore  to  an  end;  on  the  contrary,  it  became  con- 
centrated in  the  south,  where  Guerrero  had  gone,  and  one 
after  the  other  San  Luis,  Michoacan,  Puebla,  in  short  the 
majority  of  the  States,  joined  the  revolt. 

Shortly  after  the  political  assassination  of  Guerrero  (on 
the  14th  Feburary,  1831)  came  the  new  rebellion  of  Santa- 
Ana  in  January,  1832,  seconded  by  Texas,  Tamaulipas, 
San  Luis  and  Zacatecas.  In  1833  Don  Ignacio  Escalada 
rose  in  Morelia  wnth  the  cry  of  "  Keligion  and  our  Rights," 
and  in  July  of  the  same  year  the  Governor  of  Zacatecas 
pronounced  against  Santa-Ana,  the  Dictator.  At  this 
time  there  began  those  separatist's  movements  in  Texas 
which  ended  with  the  recognition  of  her  independence. 
In  1837  came  the  fresh  rebellions  of  Ugarte,  in  San  Luis  ; 
of  Urrea  in  Sonora;  of  Guzman  in  Michoacan,  and  others 
in  Tamaulipas,  all  of  which  preceded  by  only  a  few  mouths 
the  first  French  intervention  (in  November,  1838).  Not 
for  this  foreijrn  intervention  did  the  civil  war  cease.  It  did 
so  only  when  Santa-Ana  succeeded  in  getting  the  better  of 
it  in  Acajcte,  on  the  3rd  of  May,  1839. 

In  July,  1840,  Urrea,  in  conjunction  with  Gomez  Farias, 
rose  in  Mexico,  the  resulting  battle  lasting  fifteen  days  and 
ending  with  a  victory  for  Bustamante.  In  the  following 
year  (1841)  General  Paredes  proclaimed  the  Dictatorship 
in  Guadalajara,  on  the  8th  of  August.  Valencia  sec- 
onded the  movement  in  Mexico  ou  the  31st  of  the 
same  month  and  Santa-Ana  in  Veracruz  on  the  9th 
of  September.  Shortly  afterwards  occurred  a  fresh  rising 
in  Mexico  (December,   1814),  and  meantime,  at  the  very 


AND    ITS    IXSTITUTIONS.  9 

moment  in  which  the  war  of  American  intervention  was 
breaking  out,  General  Puredes  raised  the  revolutionary'- 
cry  in  San  Luis.  From  the  time  of  that  intervention 
until  the  French  one,  partial  insurrections  abounded. 
In  July  of  1846,  the  rebellion  of  Yafiez;  in  August  that  of 
Salas;  in  February  of  1847  that  of  the  "polkos;" 
shortly  afterwards  Paredes  rose  anew  in  Aguascalientes  ; 
then  Don  Leon  Marquez  got  up  a  revolution  with  not 
much  success.  In  1851,  Bahamonde  in  Michoacan  and 
Blancarte  in  Jalisco  rose  in  arms  against  the  government  of 
Don  Mariano  Arista,  and  with  them  joined  shortly  after- 
wards LdpezUraga  who  had  been  sent  against  them,  a  pro- 
ceeding which  was  imitated  later  (in  1853)  by  Robles 
Pezuela. 

On  the  1st  of  May,  1854,  Don  Florencio  Villareal  pro- 
claimed the  famous  revolutionary  plan  of  Ayutla,  after- 
wards seconded  and  reformed  by  Comonfort  in  Acapulco ; 
then  came  interminable,  bloody  and  fratricidal  struggles, 
developed,  now  here,  now  there,  amidst  the  darkness  of 
the  dictatorial  policy,  from  one  end  of  the  republic  to  the 
other.  Santa-Ana  fell  (in  1855)  and  Don  Ignacio  Comon- 
fort became  President.  New  risings  in  Sierra  Gorda  and 
Zacapoastla  ;  the  constitution  of  1857,  which  Comonfor.t  be- 
trayed in  December  of  the  same  year  ;  he  is  proclaimed  in 
the  midst  of  the  revolutionary  effervescence  —  Juarez  comes 
into  power,  but  not  into  the  capital,  where  Zuloaga  has  al- 
ready proclaimed  himself  anti-president.  The  strife  between 
liberals  and  conservatives  which  brought  in  its  disastrous 
train  the  French  intervention,  breaks  out  afresh,  and  — 
enough !  What  has  been  said  is  sufficient  to  justify  our 
putting  the  question,  '*  could  Mexico  in  the  midst  of  such 
"  distress,  war  and  pillage,  be  expected  to  stimulate  her 
"  industries,  develop  her  mines,  promulgate  and  enforce 
*'  laws  favorable  to  agriculture,  protect  commerce,  insure 
**  security  to.  life    and    property,  in   short,  set    out  with 


10  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

"  vigor  on  the  road  thai  leads  to  prosperity  and  civili- 
'*zation?"  Most  certainly  she  could  not.  Little,  very 
little  could  be  done  in  the  raidst  of  such  commotion  in  the 
directions  mentioned,  and  it  is  sufficient  glory  for  our 
fathers  to  have  left  us  the  heritage  of  those  political  beliefs 
which  rule  alone  at  the  present  day. 

ERA    OF    PEACE. 

n.  A  new  political  order  of  things  was  inaugurated  with 
the  triumph  of  the  Revolution  of  Tuxtepec,  which  com- 
pletely removed  the  inveterate  elements  of  discord  and  retro- 
gression which  then  existed,  and  placed  the  country  in  new 
and  unknown  channels  of  prosperity.  The  triumph  of  the 
Revolution  was  the  triumph  of  peace,  and  this  latter  triumph 
gave  birth  to  a  political-social  evolution  which  made  Mexico, 
heretofore  the  quarrelsome  and  retrogressive  country  of 
other  years,  the  most  progressive  nation  of  Spanish- 
America.  From  the  political  era  it  had  advanced  to  the 
economical  stage;  from  the  contest  for  a  beginning,  to  the 
struggle  for  existence;  from  the  metaphysical  or  specu- 
lative epoch  to  the  positive  or  real. 

The  Conservative  party,  which  arose  from  the  ashes  of 
the  Spanish  domination,  and  which,  for  nearly  half  a  cen- 
tury had  never  ceased  to  sow  discord  among  the  Mexicans, 
had  buried  itself  amidst  the  ruins  of  its  last  attempt  and 
final  treason  —  the  French  intervention.  The  triumphant 
elements,  prostituted  by  the  policy  of  procrastination  which 
they  had  adopted  immediately  succeeding  their  victory, 
were  removed  in  1877  and  replaced  by  other  and  newer 
ones,  more  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  ouv  Jin  de  siecle. 

To  establish  a  new  order  of  things,  it  became  necessary 
to  inaugurate  a  formal  policy  of  honesty,  acknowledging 
the  credits  of  foreign  nations,  and  more  especially  that  of 
the  United  States  ;  it  was  a  matter  of  absolute  lu-cessity  to 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


u 


give  ear  to  the  patriotism  of  the  people  in  order  to  secure 
their  pecuniary  co-operation  ;  it  was  unavoidable  to  increase 
their  burdens  with  new  taxations,  and  finally,  it  was  inev- 
itable to  shirk  the  duty  which  confronted  the  government, 
of  opening  up  new  avenues  of  trade  to  commerce,  to  indus- 
try, to  mining ;  and  institute  a  progressive  policy  which 
should  be  distinctly  at  variance  with  the  decalogue  of  the 
former  administrations. 

What  the  result  of  the  efforts  of  the  Executive  has  been 
in  this  direction  will  be  seen  in  the  superficial  study  which 
we  propose  to  make  of  the  works  recently  undertaken 
through  the  medium  of  his  Cabinet. 


SIEGE   OF   MEXICO   IN   TIME    OF   THE   CONQUEST. 
M«x.  R.  T.  D.  Los  Siglos. 


12  THE   BICHES    OF   MEXICO 


CHAPTER    I. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS. 

I.  In  referring,  at  this  point,  to  the  rehitions  existing 
between  Mexico  and  other  countries  and  to  the  work 
undertaken  by  the  Secretary  of  Affairs  with  a  view  to 
facilitating  and  imix-oving  the  transaction  of  business  per- 
taining to  his  department,  we  will  merel}'  notice  matters  of 
the  greatest  importance  and  omit  those  of  a  mere  second- 
ary interest. 

It  would  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  in  a  work  of 
such  complicated  character  as  this,  to  descend  to  details 
and  to  follow,  step  by  step,  the  delicate  and  progressive 
career  of  Mexican  international  polity;  we  will  therefore 
confine  ourselves  to  such  a  presentation  as  may  be  strictly 
necessary  to  give  a  correct  and  clear  understanding  of  the 
subject,  without  venturing  upon  unwarranted  comments  or 
attempting  to  interfere  with  the  policy  of  reserve  neces- 
sary for  the  adjustment  of  relations  now  awaiting  a 
settlement. 

The  treaties  entered  into  by  the  administration  of  1862, 
in  reference  to  the  Powers  which  recognized  the  French 
intervention  and  the  government  of  the  usurper,  were  de- 
clared void  and  of  no  effect.  The  agents  appointed  by  the 
grovernmcnt  in  foreign  countries  could  not  retain  an  oHlcial 
character  after  the  restoration  of  the  Republic  but  simply 
that  of  commercial,  private  agents,  with  instructions  to  be 
reserved  and  prudent  in  their  conduct  and  to  obey  in  all 
things  the  laws  of  the  countries  in  which  they  resided. 

During  this  period  of  struggle,  friendly  internatioiud 
relations  were  sustained  only  by  the    American   republics 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  13 

which  had  always  displayed  sympathy  with  the  cause  of 
Mexico's  independence  and  liberty ;'  among  these  the 
United  States  deserves  especial  mention,  for,  by  the  moral 
support  which  it  lent  to  the  national  cause,  it  became 
entitled  to  the  gratitude  and  consideration  of  the  Mexican 
people  and  of  the  Mexican  government. 

President  Juarez  in  his  address  to  the  national  assembly 
which  convened  December  8,  1867,  used  the  following  lan- 
guao;e  in  this  connection  : 

"  By  reason  of  the  intervention  our  relations  with  Euro- 
pean powers  were  broken  off.  Three  of  these  powers,  by 
virtue  of  the  treaty  of  London,  entered  into  war  with  the 
Republic ;  then  France  alone  continued  the  intervention 
but  the  other  European  powers  which  had  previously 
entertained  relations  with  the  Republic  declined  to  recog- 
nize it  and,  in  violation  of  the  obligation  of  neutrality, 
recognized  the  so-called  government  sustained  by  France. 

"In  this  manner  the  European  governments  broke 
their  treaties  with  the  Republic  and  suspended  the 
relations  with  us  which  they  have  not  yet  renewed  *  *  * 
The  government  has  taken  care  also  that  the  subjects 
of  these  nations  residing  in  the  Republic  should  be 
under  the  protection  of  the  law  and  of  the  governmental 
authorities.  The  efficacy  of  this  protection  has  been  suffi- 
cient to  remove  any  cause  for  complaint.  It  has  been  prac- 
tically shown  that  by  reason  of  the  enlightenment  of  our  peo- 
ple and  because  of  the  principles  of  our  liberal  institutions, 
strangers  living  in  Mexico  are  on  an  equality  with  Mexi- 
cans and  enjoy  all  the  rights  and  privileges  granted  by  the 
laws,  without  need  of  the  special  protection  resulting  from 
treaties."  Thus  it  was  that  the  Executive  did  not  find  it 
inappropriate  to  declare  that  he  was  ready  to  enter  into  new 
treaties  in  proper  and  becoming  terms  whenever  those 
foreign  nations  might  see  fit  to  present  them. 

The  confederation  of  northern  Germany,  Spain  and  Italy 


14  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

promptly  displayed  a  disposition  to  re-establish  relations  of 
friendship  with  the  Republic  and  sent  successive,  accredited 
representatives  who  were  received  by  the  President  with 
due  consideration  and  recognition.  The  relations  with  the 
United  States  are  becoming  closer  and  closer  as  the  mer- 
cantile traffic  and  industrial  operations  between  the  two 
countries  increase  in  volume  and  are  strengthened  by  mutual 
contidence. 

FRONTIER    MATTERS. 

II.  The  difficulties  which  have  arisen  in  connection  with  the 
depredations  of  uncivilized  Indians  who  inhabit  the  frontiers 
of  Mexico  and  the  United  States  have  been  settled  in  a  satis- 
factory manner,  notwithstanding  the  gravity  which  they  had 
assumed.  These  depredations  led  to  many  complaints  on  the 
part  of  the  authorities  of  both  nations  along  the  frontier 
of  Sonora,  CJiihuahua,  Coahuila,  Nuevo  Leon  and  Tamau- 
lipas.  |The  Mexican  government  has  made  concessions  to 
the  Indians,  more  or  less  important,  but  their  absolute 
pacification  could  not  be  secured  in  the  extensive  and 
abandoned  regions  which  they  inhabit,  and  where  not  even 
the  American  republic  has  been  able  to  guarantee  absolute 
security  for  the  lives  and  property  of  its  own  citizens.  It 
was  proposed  on  the  part  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States  that  permission  should  be  granted  to  its  troops  to 
cross  into  Mexican  territory  in  pursuit  of  Indians  and  that 
thev  should  be  subjected,  en  masse,  to  the  law  of  extradition, 
which  both  nations  should  co-operate  to  enforce.  But  the 
Executive  di<l  not  possess  authority  to  grant  this  permis- 
sion, and  notice  to  this  effect  was  given  to  the  American 
minister,  whose  government  i)orsisted  in  its  demand,  add- 
ing, that  it  would  not  be  hami)ered  in  its  pursuit  of  the 
savage  by  any  consideration.  The  Mexican  minister  made 
suijiiestions  declaring  that  his  grovernmont  would  find  it 
necessary  to  enter  a  protest  against  the  violation  of  its  ter- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  15 

ritory,  should  such  a  case  arise.     Measures  were  taken  to 
remove  and  transport,  in  a  peaceful  manner,  to  territory 
destined  for  that  purpose  in  the  United  States,  the  tribe  of 
Kickapoos  who  had  crossed  into  Mexico  in  a  time  of  peace ; 
but  these  refused  to  return  to  their  former  reservations. 
In  the  beginning  of   1873,  it  was  thought  in  Mexico  that 
the  government  at  Washington  proposed  to  renew  its  ne- 
gotiations relative  to  the  removal    of   these    Indians    and 
instructions  were  immediately  given  to  the    governors  of 
Nuevo  Leon  and  Coahuila  to  aid  the  American  officials  in 
the  best  manner  possible,  in  making  a  peaceful  removal. 
On  this  occasion  the  efforts  of  the  Mexican  Government 
were  fruitless,  as  Colonel  McKenzie,  in  May  of  the  same 
year,  crossed    the  Bravo  river  with  United  States  forces 
and,  making  a  sudden  and  unexpected  attack  upon  a  camp 
of  Kickapoos,  killed    some    and    carried    off    about  forty 
prisoners,   women  and  children.     The  authorities    of   the 
frontier  settlements  of  Mexico,  becoming  apprised  of  what 
had  taken  place,  recruited  some  armed  forces  to  attack  and 
repel  the  American  troops,  but  not  being  able  to  overtake 
them,  had  to   return   to   their  respective   localities.     The 
Mexican  minister  in  Washington  who  had  received  notice 
of  what  had  happened  from  the  vice-consul  at  San  Antonio, 
Texas,  askedfor  instructions  from  the  Secretary  of  Foreign 
Affairs  to  take  suitable  action  in  reference  to  the  matter 
with  the  United  States ;  but  no  decisive  step  was  taken  at 
once,  as  it  was  deemed  better  on  account  of  the  gravity  of  the 
situation  to  await  fuller  and  more  complete  details  and  infor- 
mation.    The  information  received  brought  out  some  points 
of  which  the  most  important,  till  then  unknown  to  the  Mexi- 
can Government,  was  that  the  frontier  forces  of  this  country 
to  whom  was  intrusted  the  task  of    fiorhtiujj  the  uncivilized 
Indians,  had  crossed,  in  pursuit  of  them,  into  United  States 
territory  where,  far  from  being  interfered  with,  they  had 
been  protected,  without  any  thought  on  the  part  of  the 


16  THE    RICUES    OF    MEXICO 

military  authorities  that  their  territory  had  been  violated 
by  the  presence  of  Mexican  troops  in  pursuit  of  a  common 
enemy.  This  circumstance,  together  with  the  fact  that  the 
American  troops  bad  entered  no  populated  locality  on  the 
frontier  of  Mexico,  and  that  they  had  inflicted  no  loss  or 
caused  no  damage  to  the  inhabitants,  during  their  march, 
calmed  the  excitement  created  on  the  northern  frontier. 

Other  invasions  of  Mexican  territory  occurred  subse- 
quently. In  November  of  1875  an  American  official  carried 
out  his  plau  to  enter  Mexican  territory  in  pursuit  of  certain 
criminals.  General  Fuero,  by  reason  of  this  occurrence, 
appealed  to  General  Potter,  commanding  at  Brownsville, 
and  notified  him  that  such  invasion  was  contrary  to  the 
treaties  between  the  two  nations,  and  that,  should  he  fail 
to  withdraw  the  troops  immediately  from  the  national  ter- 
ritory, he  would  not  only  protest  against  the  aggression, 
but  would  be  compelled  to  repel  force  with  force.  General 
Potter  replied  by  saying  that  his  repeated  orders  to  Amer- 
ican oflicers  to  make  no  asigrressive  move  against  Mexico, 
had  been  disobeyed,  but  that  having  repeated  them  in  con- 
nection with  the  incident  against  which  a  protest  had  been 
entered,  the  American  troops  had  withdrawn. 

On  the  3d  of  April,  1877,  Lieutenant-Colonel  Shafter 
made  another  invasion,  taking  possession  of  Piedras 
Negras,  not  in  pursuit  of  malefactors,  but  to  wrest  from 
the  Mexican  authorities  by  force,  two  Mexicans  guilty  of 
crimes  committed  on  Mexican  soil. 

The  minister  of  this  country  at  Washington,  protested 
against  the  invasion  on  the  28th  of  the  same  month  and 
asked  that  the  government  inflict  punishment  on  the  guilty 
parties,  and  give  guaranties  against  similar  occurrences  in 
the  future.  In  May  following,  the  Secretary  of  State  re- 
plied, saying  that  he  had  already  asked  for  information 
concernin*;  the  matter.  Notwithstanding,  on  the  first  of 
June,  the  war  department  of  the  United  States  issued  an 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  17 

order  to  General  Orel,  in  which  authority  was  granted  to 
the  United  States  troops  to  invade  Mexican  territory  in 
pursuit  of  certain  classes  of  malefactors,  to  capture  and  to 
punish  them,  and  to  recover  the  property  stolen  from 
American  citizens. 

While  the  Plenipotentiary  of  Mexico  at  Washington  was 
protesting  against  this  order,  the  President,  through  the 
Secretary  of  War,  was  imparting  to  General  Treviiio,  chief 
of  the  military  zone  of  the  north,  certain  instructions 
intended  to  obviate  those  conflicts  as  far  as  possible  or,  at 
least,  in  an  extremity,  to  save  the  honor  and  dignity  of  the 
republic. 

General  Trevino  was  advised  to  locate  his  forces  at  the 
most  convenient  points,  so  as  to  guard  the  Mexican  frontier 
and  prevent  the  thieves  of  both  sides  of  the  Bravo  from 
escaping  punishment  by  simply  crossing  the  river,  and  to 
this  end,  to  pursue,  within  the  boundaries  of  the  Republic, 
malefactors  who  may  commit  theft  in  Mexican  territory, 
and  seek  safety  in  the  United  States,  as  well  as  those  who, 
having  committed  a  theft  in  that  country,  might  cross  to 
Mexico  to  escape  justice ;  that  in  case  the  civil  or  military 
authorities  of  the  United  States  should  make  a  demand  for 
criminals  arrested  by  the  troops  under  his  command,  his 
action  should  be  regulated  by  the  extradition  treaty  in  force 
in  1862.  He  was  authorized,  as  well,  to  act  in  concert  with 
the  proper  authorities  in  pursuing  criminals,  without  thereby 
authorizing,  in  any  event,  foreign  troops  to  enter  Mexican 
territory ;  to  prevent  Mexican  troops  from  entering  upon 
foreign  soil,  and  that  in  bringing  these  instructions  to  the 
knowledo;e  of  General  Ord  or  the  commander  of  the  United 
States  forces,  he  would  give  him  to  understand  that  the 
wishes  of  the  President  on  this  point,  contained  no  other 
restrictions  than  those  imposed  by  international  law,  the 
treaties  of  both  countries,  and  the  dignity  of  the  Republic. 
That,  as  the  national  government,  as  a  consequence,  could. 


18  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

not  permit  foreign  forces  to  enter  Mexican  territory  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  national  Congress,  much  less  allow 
these  forces  to  exercise  acts  of  jurisdiction  such  as  were 
expressed  in  the  order  issued  by  the  war  department  of 
the  American  Union,  he  should  repel  such  forces  it"  an 
invasion  took  place. 

In  the  month  of  September  of  the  same  year,  a  party  of 
American  soldiers  made  another  invasion;  they  attacked 
the  camp  of  the  Lipans,  burned  their  temporary  habita- 
tions, carried  off  five  aged  Indians  which  they  captured  in 
the  assault,  and  a  considerable  number  of  horses  belono:ino: 
not  only  to  the  Indians,  but  also  to  several  Mexicans. 

A  party  of  a  hundred  men  left  Zaragoza  in  pursuit, 
under  the  command  of  Colonel  Inocente  Rodriguez,  but 
failed  to  overtake  them,  the  invading  force  bavins:  re- 
crossed  the  river  Bravo. 

This  anomalous  situation  on  the  Mexican  frontier  lasted 
till  the  year  1882. 

On  the  3rd  of  May  of  this  year,  the  United  States  min- 
ister to  Mexico  requested  the  government  to  allow  the 
American  troops  to  enter  Mexican  territory  in  pursuit  of 
rebellious  Indians.  The  reply  was  given,  that  only  the 
Senate  could  grant  such  permission,  and  that  the  Executive 
could  appeal  to  that  body  for  such  authority  only  when  he 
knew  that  the  United  States  was  disposed  to  make  similar 
concessions  to  Mexican  troops  under  like  circumstances. 
The  American  government,  having  declared  this  to  be  a 
matter  of  recii)rocity,  authority  was  asked  from  and 
granted  by  the  Senate  on  May  11th,  1882,  whereby  the 
United  States  trcjops  were  permitted  to  enter  Mexican 
territory  and  the  Mexican  troops.  United  States  territory, 
in  accordance  with  the  enactments  of  the  same  body  on  May 
29th,  1879,  and  the  amendments  of  October  14th,  1880. 

The  authority  was  granted  for  the  period  of  one  year, 
and  the  agreement  was  signed  in  Washin<j:ton  on  the  29th 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  19 

of  July  of  the  same  year.  On  the  28th  of  July,  1883,  it 
was  extended  for  another  year,  and  again  renewed  for 
a  similar  period  on  October  31st,  1884. 

During  last  year  was  renewed  between  Mexico  and  the 
United  States  the  agreement,  that  the  Federal  troops  of  the 
two  countries  can  cross  the  borders  for  the  purpose  of  pur- 
suing the  savage  Indians.  This  agreement  was  renewed  as 
a  result  of  the  depredations  committed  by  the  Apaches  who 
are  under  the  leadership  of  "  Kiel  "  on  the  entire  frontier 
of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  The  agreement  will  remain 
in  force  during  one  year  from  November  25,  1892. 


AGREEMENTS      RELATIVE      TO      BOUNDARY     LINES     WITH     THE 
UNITED    STATES. 

The  special  relations  existing  between  Mexico  and  the 
neighboring  nations  of  North  America  and  Guatemala,  led 
the  Mexican  government  to  direct  its  attention  to  measures 
for  settling  the  difficulties  which  may  arise,  in  the  shape  of 
just  and  equitable  agreements  in  which  it  was  stipulated 
that  commisjsions  be  appointed  pending  a  definite  settle- 
ment of  the  boundary  lines.  In  this  manner  the  agreement 
signed  in  Washington  on  July  29,  1882,  was  negotiated. 
Its  purpose  was  to  determine  the  manner  in  which  the 
monuments  should  be  placed  which  indicated  the  dividing 
line  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  established  in 
conformity  with  the  treatise  of  February  2d,  1848,  and  of 
December  30th,  1853  ;  Avhich  monuments  may  have  been 
partially  destroyed  or  misplaced;  and  how  to  erect  new 
ones  in  case  of  necessity. 

The  longest  period  allowed  by  this  agreement  for  the 
work  of  the  respective  commissions,  was  four  years  and 
four  months,  but  at  the  request  of  the  American  o-overn- 
ment  an  extension  of  eighteen  months  was  granted  by  an 
additional  document  signed  December  5th,  1885. 


20  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

This  extra  tiaie  having  expired  without  the  jippoiutment 
of  the  boundary  commission,  both  governments  signed  the 
agreement  of  February  18th,  1889,  putting  in  force  the 
stipuhitions  of  the  treaty  of  July,  1882,  and  continuing  it 
for  five  years  longer,  to  be  calculated  from  the  date  of  its 
ratification,  October  12th,  1889. 

The  continuous  variations  of  the  river  Bravo,  have  given 
rise  to  the  difficulties  between  the  two  governments.  To 
settle  them,  the  agreement  of  November  12th,  1884,  was 
arranged  whereby  rules  were  fixed  to  decide  questions 
which  might  arise  from  the  variations  of  the  rivers  Bravo 
and  Colorado,  which  bound  the  two  republics. 

The  agreement  was  ratified  on  September  29th,  1886. 
Another  agreement  was  entered  into  on  March  1st,  1889, 
for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  application  of  the  prin- 
ciples contained  in  the  one  preceding.  An  international 
boundary  commission  was  established  by  the  first  article 
with  exclusive  jurisdiction  to  decide  under  certain  condi- 
tions, all  differences  and  questions  which  may  arise  by 
reason  of  the  boundaries  indicated  by  the  rivers  mentioned. 
Its  duration  is  to  date  for  five  years  from  December  the 
24th,  1890,  the  date  of  its  ratification. 

The  dividing  line  indicated  by  the  river  Bravo,  gave  riso 
to  a  new  international  difficulty.  In  February,  1884. 
Beaver  Island  was  invaded  by  several  Texans  who  despoiled 
and  expelled  the  Mexican  citizens  that  occupied  it.  Al- 
though considered  Mexican  territory,  the  right  of  Mexico 
to  reclaim  its  ownership  of  the  island  seemed  doubtful ;  on 
which  account,  both  governments  concluded  to  maintain  the 
statu  quo  while  the  matter  was  being  determined  by  the 
precedents  established.  The  plans  submitted,  when  the 
i)Oundaries  were  traced,  were  examined,  the  report  of  the 
commission  ad  hoc  sent  u})on  the  ground  to  study  the  spot 
in  controversy  and,  also,  the  report  of  General  Emory, 
chairman  of  the  American  commission  and,  no  other  means 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  21 

of  investigation  being  at  hand,  the  Secretary  of  Affairs 
hastened  to  send  to  the  Mexican  Legation  in  Washington 
the  letter  of  September  26th,  1884,  in  which  it  was  recom- 
mended to  make  known  to  the  Department  of  State,  that 
the  Mexican  government  did  not  insist  upon  its  right  to  the 
island  of  Morteritos  or  Beaver  Island  or  Island  No.  13. 

AGREEMENTS    RELATIVE    TO     THE    BOUNDARIES    OF 
GUATEMALA. 

The  boundary  question  has  been  the  cause  of  constant 
difficulties  with  the  republic  of  Guatemala  ever  since  the 
independence  of  Mexico,  notwithstanding  the  negotiations 
initiated  by  the  latter  in  1832,  1852  and  1858. 

In  1873  several  persons,  natives  of  Guatemala,  located 
in  a  district  called  Bejucal ;  they  asked  to  be  considered 
Mexican  citizens,  and  the  government,  which  has  regarded 
this  district  as  national  territory,  arranged  for  the  estab- 
lishment therein  of  Mexican  officials.  The  government  of 
Guatemala  entered  a  protest  insisting  that  Bejucal  belonged 
to  that  republic.  The  Mexican  Executive  suspended  the 
pending  arrangements,  and  immediately  asked  the  Governor 
of  Chiapas  for  a  report.  In  view  of  this  report,  instruc- 
tions were  again  issued  on  the  second  of  July  following,  to 
carry  out  the  previous  order,  and  an  answer  was  sent  on 
the  same  date  to  the  Charge  d' Affaires  of  Guatemala,  say- 
ing that  Mexico  considered  Bejucal  as  a  part  of  her  terri- 
tory. The  government  of  Guatemala,  on  the  30th  of 
August  disputed  the  grounds  on  which  Mexico's  resolution 
was  based,  and  protested  against  the  step  taken,  declaring 
that  she  would  not  renounce  her  sovereignty  over  Chiapas 
and  Soconusco.  The  President  of  Mexico  replying  to  the 
statements  of  Guatemala,  insisted  upon  the  resolution  he 
had  taken,  declaring  that  he  would  permit  no  discussion 
concerning  the  possession  of  Chiapas  and  Soconusco  by  the 
Republic. 


22  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

A  movement  was  then  inaugurated  to  Hx  the  boundaries 
of  the  two  countries,  as  a  means  of  settling  the  difficulty 
referred  to  and  any  other  of  a  similar  nature  that  might 
arise.  A  formal  invitation  was  extended  to  the  government 
of  Guatemala  to  grant  full  authority  to  open  negotiations 
in  Mexico  and  to  designate,  of  common  accord,. a  scientific 
commission  to  make  investigations,  draw  plans  and  obtain 
the  requisite  information. 

On  the  22nd  of  July,  1874,  negotiations  were  begun  with 
the  Guatemalan  legation,  which  had  been  invested  with 
complete  authority,  concerning  the  preliminaries  of  the 
boundary  dispute,  and  on  the  7th  of  December,  1877,  the 
du{)licate  agreement  was  signed.  By  virtue  of  this  agree- 
ment, a  mixed  commission  composed  of  engineers  was  cre- 
ated for  the  purpose  of  examining  and  studying  the  dividing 
line  between  the  two  countries,  which  commission  was  to 
meet  in  the  city  of  Tapachula  two  months  after  the  mutual 
ratification. 

In  1881  the  investigation  was  not  concluded  and  it 
was  proposed  by  Mexico  to  remodel  the  agreement  because 
of  the  termination  of  its  last  period  of  extension. 

"  But  in  the  meantime,"  says  Mr.  Mariscal,  in  his  report 
to  the  Senate  in  1882,  "  a  grave  incident  occurred  which 
determined  the  manner  in  which  this  boundary  question,  so 
long-lived  and  apparently  so  interminable  because  of  the 
pains  taken  by  Guatemala  to  profit  by  it  for  the  acquisition, 
in  whole  or  in  part,  of  the  territory  of  Chiapas,  should  be 
settled. 

OilJcial  notice  was  received  of  an  invasion  made  by  the 
Prefect  of  San  Marcos,  in  conjunction  with  Guatemalan 
soldiers  who  demolished  a  boundary  sign  recognized  then 
provisionally,  as  an  international  mark,  and  erected 
another  some  leagues  distant  from  our  territory.  This  was 
one  of  many  acts  of  daring  rashness  with  which  the  author- 
ities of   Guatemala   ridiculed  our  apparent   weakness,  evi- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  28 

denced  by  the  habitual  absence  from  the  neighborhood,  of 
armed  troops,  either  State  or  Federal.  It  then  appeared  to 
me  that  only  the  presence  of  Mexican  troops  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  frontier,  could  prevent  the  repetition  of  such  acts, 
by  giving  the  government  of  Guatemala  to  understand  that 
the  time  had  arrived  to  settle  the  matter  in  controversy 
without  the  evasions  and  disturbances  with  which  it  had 
always  been  disgraced. 

The  President,  with  good  judgment,  undertook  the  task 
of  inaugurating  with  respect  to  Guatemala,  a  more  ener- 
getic policy,  but  one  based  on  the  strictest  justice,  and 
consented  to  the, sending  of  troops  to  Soconusco.  The 
troops  finally  succeeded  in  overcoming  many  obstacles 
which  it  is  unnecessary  to  mention  and,  sustained,  by  their 
presence,  the  measure  proposed  by  the  Secretary  of 
Affairs  —  to  replace  the  boundary  sign  destroyed  by  the 
Prefect  and  other  armed  Guatemalans,  and  tear  down  the 
one  erected  by  them. 

At  the  bare  announcement  that  troops  were  marching  to 
the  frontier,  the  government  of  General  Barrios  under- 
stood that  they  were  determined  to  defend  our  rights  with- 
out yielding  longer  to  ridicule  in  the  shape  of  audacity  or 
intrigue.  He  even  thought  that  we  were  about  to  make 
war  on  him,  either  ostensibly  or  in  a  covert  manner,  by 
fostering  on  the  frontier  revolutionary  movements  which 
we  might  promote  in  his  territory.  He  was  correct  in 
neither,  as  we  will  show  at  the  inception,  by  declaring  the 
real  purpose  of  the  expedition.  *  *  *  That  govern- 
ment, believing  itself  in  danger,  began  to  take  extraordinary 
precautions,  preparing  for  war  by  the  organization  of  its 
army,  the  purchase  of  arms  and  so  forth —  heavy  and  use- 
less expenses  which  only  served  to  weaken  it.  But,  above 
all,  it  was  resolved  to  adopt  the  measure  of  which  some 
Guatemalan  statesmen  had  dreamed  —  it  was  resolved  to 
appeal  to  an  alliance  with  the  United  States,  against  Mexico, 


24  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

to  an  alliance  that  might  assume  the  appearance  of  a  most 
impartial  aibitration. 

At  this  time  the  Hon.  Mr.  Blaine  was  in  Washington  as 
Secretary  of  State  or  minister  of  Foreign  AtTairs,  who,  with 
his  enterprising  and  active  policy,  was  attracting  universal 
attention.  It  was  regarded  as  an  opportune  moment,  and 
an  appeal  was  made  to  Mr.  Blaine  with  a  view  to  securing 
his  mediation  between  Mexico  and  Guatemala.  What  fol- 
lowed this  appeal  is  well  known,  and  in  what  terms  the 
Secretary  of  State,  in  the  name  of  his  government,  pro- 
posed to  ours  an  arbitration  by  the  United  States.  *  *  * 
A  fact  which  is  not  yet  generally  known,  and  which, 
at  first,  could  only  have  been  suspected  though  it 
has  since  been  fully  established,  is  that  at  the 
time  mentioned,  extensive  plans  were  being  hatched  and 
subsequently'  being  carried  into  effect  in  conjunction 
with  the  appeals  for  mediation  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States,  to  annex  Soconusco  and  even  Guatemala  to  the 
United  States  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  latter 
nation  from  displaying  impartiality  in  the  proposed  arbi- 
tration and,  finally,  to  give  Mexico  a  powerful  neighbor 
on  the  south. 

Meanwhile  the  horribln  crime  which  deprived  President 
Garfield  oi  his  life,  occurred,  and,  taking  advantage  of  it 
in  Guatemala,  the  Minister  of  Affairs  of  that  government, 
D.  Lorenzo  Montufar,  proceeded  to  Washington  apparently 
on  a  mission  of  condolence  and  sympathy,  but,  in  reality, 
to  advance  the  intrigues  referred  to.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
his  residence  in  the  capital  lent  them  much  importance, 
for  with  his  undeniable  energy  and  ingenuity,  Sefior 
Montufar  knew  how  to  win  the  co-operation  of  active  and 
intelligent  agents. 

Mr.  Blaine  had  replied  to  a  communication,  insisting 
upon  the  proposition  of  arbitration  by  his  government, 
even  if  the  question  of  Chiapas  should  be  excluded.     It  did 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  25 

not  seem  opportune  to  me  to  respond  to  such  persistence 
till  I  had  satisfied  myself  if  the  Secretary  of  State  would 
change  his  views.  During  the  period  when  this  change 
was  taking  phice,  I  sent  my  second  reply  which  has  not 
yet  been  published,  to  Mr.  Blaine,  limiting  myself  prin- 
cipally to  the  statement  that  the  question  of  the  territory 
belonging  to  Chiapas,  comprising  Soconusco,  being  elim- 
inated (of  which  Mr.  Blaine  had  made  no  mention),  I 
believed  that  it  would  be  a  very  simple  matter  to  fix  the 
boundaries  and  that  there  would  be  very  little  probability 
of  arbitration  necessary,  but  that  in  the  remote  event  of 
such  necessity,  the  government  of  Mexico  would  accept 
with  pleasure  in  such  capacity,  the  President  of  the  United 
States. 

At  this  time  our  minister  to  Washington,  Mr.  Manuel 
Zaraacona,  resigned  his  position  and  Mr.  Matias  Romero, 
whose  antecedents  and  special  aptitude  for  the  handling  of 
the  Guatemalan  controversy  had  caused  him  to  be  selected 
for  the  position,  was  substituted  in  his  place.  Mr.  Romero 
had  scarcely  arrived  in  Washington,  when  he  found  that 
the  attitude  of  that  government  was  gradually  assuming 
an  impartial  phase,  a  thing  much  to  be  desired  in  so 
grave  an  emergency.  The  agents  of  Guatemala  became 
aware  of  this,  and  great  must  have  been  the  alarm 
it  caused  to  their  government  when  it  conceived  the 
idea  of  making  a  coup  d'etat,  so  to  say,  by  fully 
empowering  President  Barrios  to  go  in  person  to  Washing- 
ton for  the  purpose  of  settling  the  difficulty  with  Mexico. 
Mr.  Romero,  on  his  part,  with  the  energy  and  zeal  which 
characterize  him,  had  thrown  more  light  on  the  subject 
among  the  members  of  the  press,  and  still  more  among 
persons  of  great  influence  with  the  people  and  the  adminis- 
tration. Proof  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  letter  which 
the  illustrious  General  Grant  addressed  to  Mr.  Romero, 
and  which  the  latter  had  published  by  the  press  ;  a  docu- 


20  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

ment  from  which  it  was  easy  to  infer  with  the  greatest 
{le<iree  of  probability,  what  answer  the  United  States  would 
jT^ive  to  the  appeal  for  arbitration  so  eagerly  made  by  Gen- 
eral Barrios. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  answer  oriven  by  the  government 
at  Washington,  was  this;  that  it  was  disposed  to  serve  as 
arbitrator  in  the  boundary  controversy  between  Mexico  and 
Guatemala  only  in  case  both  nations  should  seek  it  of  com- 
mon accord.  In  vain,  as  is  known,  did  General  Barrios 
tenaciouslv  insist  and  implore  that  arbitration  should  be 
imposed  upon  us,  alleging  that  only  in  that  manner  could 
confidence  be  inspired  in  any  arrangement  that  might  be 
made,  since  Mexico  did  not  inspire  him  with  any  ;  Presi- 
dent Arthur  adhered  firmly  to  his  decision.  In  vain,  as  is  to 
be  reasonably  presumed,  efforts  were  made  to  tempt  the 
United  States  government  by  proposals  of  annexation  and 
so  forth,  which  had  previously  been  made  by  Mr.  Montu- 
far ;  the  result  was  the  same  and  the  disillusion  the  most 
complete. 

What  then  was  he  to  do?  That  which  he  should  have 
tried  to  have  done  at  first ;  have  an  understanding  with 
our  government  without  attempting  to  secure  forced  medi- 
ation or  to  obtain  it  in  a  clandestine  manner.  This  is  what 
followed,  apparently  with  sincerity,  for  he  declared  to  Mr. 
Romero  that  his  conduct,  which  had  been  hostile  to  Mexico, 
had  rather  been  the  result  of  wicked  and  malicious  coun- 
sel than  of  his  own  volition.  He  showed  himself  disposed 
to  renounce  the  pretended  claims  of  Guatemala  to  Chiapas 
and  Soconusco,  and  to  enter  into  a  treaty  in  relation  to  the 
boundaries  between  the  two  countries  ;  for  which  purpose 
he  desired  to  visit  Mexico  immediately. 

The  wishes  expressed  by  General  Barrios  to  come  to 
Mexico,  could  not  be  carried  out,  by  reason  of  the  neces- 
sity incumbent  on  him  of  concluding  a  treaty  as  soon 
as  possible,  and   the  anxiety  of  that  gentleman  to  go  to 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  27 

Europo  in  furtherance,  apparently,  of  other  plans  which  he 
entertained.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  Mr.  Romero  was 
empowered  by  telegraph,  to  attach  his  signature  to  certain 
preliminaries  renouncing  the  claim  already  indicated; 
declaring  that  no  indemnification  of  any  kind  would  be 
required  therefor,  and  promising  to  adjust  in  Mexico  a 
boundary  treaty  based  upon  actual  possession,  and,  if  it 
should  be  necessary,  in  some  instances,  to  ignore  that,  to 
eventually  compensate  each  other  by  exchange  of  territory. 
These  preliminaries  were  to  be  signed  by  Mr.  Romero  in 
conjunction  with  General  Barrios  and  the  Guatemalan 
minister  to  Mexico  who  was  then  in  New  York  whither  he 
had  been  summoned  by  General  Barrios." 

The  preliminaries  were  signed  in  New  York  on  August 
the  12th,  1882.  The  first  article  said-  The  Republic  of 
Guatemala  waives  the  discussion  in  which  it  has  been  en- 
gaged relative  to  the  claims,  in  its  favor,  to  the  territory 
of  the  State  of  Chiapas  and  its  department  of  Soconusco. 

"  As  the  Senate  will  notice,"  continued  Mr.  Mariscal, 
**  the  preliminaries  were  already  a  victory  over  the  former 
pretensions  of  Guatemala  to  Chiapas  and  Soconusco. 
Nevertheless  the  renunciation  of  the  pretended  claims 
of  that  nation,  was  not  expressed  with  entire  clear- 
ness, as  it  was  said  that  Guatemala  waived  the  discussion 
not  that  it  renounced  its  claims  and  for  this  reason,  it 
was  possible,  though  it  did  not  appear  probable,  that 
she  might  some  time  desire  to  assert  these  claims  with- 
out discussing  them.  It  was  necessary  to  amend  this  state- 
ment in  the  manner  presented  in  the  first  article,  by  saying 
definitely ;  '  The  Republic  of  Guatemala  renounces  for- 
ever the  rights,  which  it  claims  to  possess,  to  the  territory 
of  the  State  of  Chiapas  and  its  department  of  Soconusco 
and,  as  a  consequence,  regards  said  territory  as  an  integral 
part  of  the  United  Mexican  States.'  " 

This  treaty,  as  stated  in  another  chapter,  was  signed  on 


28  THE    RICHES   OF   MEXICO 

September  27th,  1882,  and  promulgated  May  2d,  1883. 
As  it  stipulates  to  trace  the  boundary  line  with  due  pre- 
cision on  trustworthy  maps,  and  to  establish  on  the  land 
monuments  which  would  make  the  boundaries  of  both 
republics  visible,  each  government  had  to  appoint  a  scien- 
tilic  commission  which  had  to  begin  operations  within  six 
months  from  the  date  of  ratification  by  both  parties,  at  the 
latest.  The  protocol  of  Sei)tember  14,  1883,  was  arranged 
for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  details  of  organization, 
and  the  work  of  the  commission,  and  by  this  it  was  agreed 
that  an  extension  of  time  till  November  1,  1886,  should  bo 
granted  to  the  commissioners,  in  which  to  complete  their 
labors.  This  period  was  extended  by  the  agreement  of 
October  16,  1886,  and  for  two  years  longer  by  that  of 
October  22,  1888. 

Finally  by  the  agreement  of  October  the  20th,  1890,  the 
period  stipulated  by  the  treaty  of  September  27,  1882,  and 
extended  by  the  protocol  and  agreements  already  men- 
tioned, was  still  further  extended  for  two  years,  to  date 
from  November  31,  1890,  to  October  31,  1892. 

COMMERCIAL    TREATIES. 

III.  The  relations  of  the  Republic  with  the  German 
emi)ire  have  grown  closer  of  late  years,  to  the  reciprocal 
advantage  of  the  commercial  interests  of  both  countries. 
In  1877,  Mr.  Vallarta,  then  minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
said  in  his  report  to  the  National  Congress,  that 
the  motived  which  have  induced  and  still  induce  the 
government  of  Mexico  to  maintain  solid  relations  with 
that  country,  among  which  are  to  be  considered  a  recogni- 
tion of  the  special  services  rendered  by  the  diplomatic  rep- 
resentatives of  the  dynasty  in  power  in  1840,  and  in  the 
unfortunate  epocli  of  1847,  when  the  emperor  did  not  yet 
occupy   the    throne ;    that    subsequently    united    Germany 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  29 

availed  itself  of  the  tirst  opportunity  to  rectify  a  mistake 
into  which  it  had  been  led  by  an  error  common  to  the  time 
in  which  it  happened  ;  that  it  again  offered  to  renew  its 
friendship  with  the  republic,  by  initiating  negotiations 
for  a  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation,  and  that,  finally, 
the  government  of  Germany,  in  conformity  with  established 
rules  whereby  the  principle  of  sovereignty  is  recognized  by 
independent  nations,  had  been  the  first  to  recognize  that 
the  administration  of  Mexico  then  in  force,  and  exercising 
exclusive  authority  in  its  civil  affairs,  not  only  without 
resistance,  but  with  the  approval  and  support  of  the 
Mexican  people,  combined,  in  the  exercise  of  such  author- 
ity, all  the  conditions  of  an  organized  government,  and  that 
none  other  had  the  right  to  pass  judgment  upon,  or  ignore, 
its  existence.  That  this  respect  for  the  doctrine  of  non- 
interference which  Mexico  had  maintained  at  all  times, 
rendered  doubly  appreciable  the  friendship  of  a  people, 
who  in  the  moral  and  intellectual  order,  through  the  medium 
of  one  of  the  most  illustrious  sages,  had  favored  the  prop- 
agation of  ideas  of  independence  among  the  colonists  of 
New  Spain. 

The  treaty  of  commerce  and  navigation  concluded  between 
the  North  German  Confederation  and  the  Zollverein  on 
August  28th,  1869,  and  which  was  to  remainin  force  till  the 
25th  of  August,  1878,  was  condemned,  as  it  was  deemed  pro- 
per to  arrange  another  better  adapted  to  the  necessities  of  the 
two  countries.  Negotiations  were  initiated  in  July,  1882, 
and  on  December  the  5th  of  the  same  year,  the  new  treaty 
was  signed,  and  on  July  26th,  1883,  the  same  was  ratified. 
In  this  treaty  are  specified  for  the  first  time,  in  a  precise 
and  definite  manner,  principles  which  the  Spanish  American 
especially,  has  been  obliged  to  defend  as  fundamental  rules 
of  popular  rights.  Among  others,  the  following  appear : 
That  as  regards  the  reclamations  or  complaints  of  individ- 
uals in  matters  of  civil,  criminal  or  executive  jurisdiction, 


30  THI-:    KICHES    OF    MKXICO 

the  respective  diplomatic  representatives  would  only  inter- 
fere in  cases  where  justice  was  denied,  or  delayed  in  au 
extraordinary  and  illegal  manner;  where  a  positive  sentence 
should  fail  of  execution  or  where,  legal  remedies  being  ex- 
hansted,  there  had  been  an  express  violation  of  the  treaties 
existing  between  the  two  nations,  or  of  the  principles  of 
international  law,  public  or  private,  generally  recognized 
by  civilized  nations  ;  that  the  German  government  will  not 
seek  to  make  Mexico  responsible  unless  when  the  Mexican 
authorities  or  their  representatives  may  have  failed  or 
refused  to  exercise  due  diligence  in  connection  with  injuries, 
vexations  or  damages  inflicted  by  the  insurgents,  upon 
German  subjects  in  Mexican  territory,  during  a  period  of 
civil  war,  or  by  savage  tribes  refusing  to  pay  allegiance  to 
the  government. 

NORWAY    AND   SWEDEN. 

Mr.  Christophersen  having  been  received  in  Mexico  as 
Minister  Plenipotentiary  ad  hoc  of  the  kingdom  of  Norway 
and  Sweden  on  January  24th,  1885,  explained  on  the  2r)tli 
of  the  same  month  the  object  of  his  mission,  which  was  to 
negotiate  a  treaty  of  friendship,  commerce  and  navigation. 
As  the  traffic  of  this  nation  with  the  Mexican  States  of 
Tabasco,  Veracruz,  Tamaulipas,  Campeche  and  Yucatan 
had  long  been  of  importance,  especially  in  the  exportation 
of  woods,  its  solicitude  was  readily  yielded  to,  and  the 
respective  treaties  were  subscribed  by  the  plenipotentiaries 
of  both  governments  on  July  29th,  1885.  These  weie 
afterwards  modified  in  matters  of  secondary  consideration, 
>)y  a  protocol  signed  in  Brussels  on  the  15th  of  December 
in  the  same  year  and  ratified  on  December  the  10th,  188G. 

FRANCE. 

The  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary 
of  the   French  Republic,  received    in  Mexico   on  the  24th 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  31 

of  March,  1882,  made  known  the  desire  of  his  gov- 
ernment to  celebrate  a  treaty  of  commerce  and  navi<r:i- 
tion  with  the  Republic  of  Mexico.  Various  difficulties 
arose  when  the  general  grounds  of  the  negotiation  had 
been  scarcely  initiated  and  considered,  and  then  the 
impossibility  of  accepting  the  preliminary  agreement  pro- 
posed by  Mr,  Coutouly  for  the  government  of  the  de- 
liberations and  consideration  of  the  treaty  proper  —  in 
which  agreement  a  stipulation  was  contained  relative  to 
the  treatment  of  the  most  favored  nation  by  both  parties 
without  restrictions  of  any  kind  —  prevented  a  definite  ar- 
rangement for  the  time  being. 

In  this  connection  the  "  Diario  Oficial"  of  the  22nd  of 
April,  1885,  said  that  "  the  principal  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
a  treaty  of  commerce  with  France  would  disappear  when 
the  French  government  would  do  away  with  the  pro- 
visional character  of  the  conference  ;  when  France  would 
not  insist  that  the  national  treaty  should  secure  the  right 
for  French  vessels  to  land  at  Mexican  ports,  as  our  govern- 
ment was  positively  determined  not  to  grant  this  immunity 
from  the  payment  of  duties,  to  the  ships  of  any  nation,  to 
the  evident  injury  of  Mexican  vessels. 

Negotiations  having  been  resumed,  it  became  possible  to 
conclude  with  the  French  Republic,  the  treaty  of  friend- 
ship and  commerce  which  was  signed  in  Mexico  on  the 
27th  of  November,  1886,  and  ratified  the  5th  of  May,  1888. 
It  would  remain  in  force  from  the  14th  of  March,  1888,  the 
date  of  mutual  ratification,  to  February  1st,  1892. 

GREAT    BRITAIN. 

The  resumption  of  diplomatic  relations  between  Mexico 
and  Great  Britain,  interrupted  during  more  than  twenty 
years,  was  arranged  in  the  same  manner  as  with  France,  by. 
unofficial  intimations  of  a  confidential  character  dating  from 


32  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

December, 1882.  Mr.  Velasco,  Mexican  Minister  in  Paris, 
had  some  conversation  upon  the  subject  with  Lord  Lyons, 
the  English  ambassador,  whereby  the  representative  of  En- 
slaud  was  led  to  understand  that  if  the  di])lomatic  relations 
should  be  resumed,  the  Mexican  government  would  not 
allow  an  arrangement  of  the  indebtedness  known  as  the 
London  Debt,  to  be  considered,  or  the  arrangement  of  the 
indebtedness  adjusted  in  1851,  which  should  be  considered 
at  the  proper  time. 

In  February,  1883,  Mr.  Lionel  Garden,  English  vice- 
consul  in  Havana,  made  known,,in  Mexico,  to  Mr.  Mariscal 
in  an  unofficial  manner,  that  his  government  desired  to 
know  what  obstacles  prevented  the  renewal  of  relations 
between  the  two  countries.  The  Minister  of  Affairs  an- 
swered that,  in  his  opinion,  up  to  that  time,  the  principal 
difficulties  had  been ; 

1st.  The  question  of  etiquette  as  to  who  should  assume 
the  initiative. 

2d.  The  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  holders  of  bonds 
in  London  to  the  renewal  of  diplomatic  relations  without  a 
previous  settlement  of  their  claims. 

3d.  The  declaration  of  the  Mexican  government  that  the 
treaty  concluded  with  England  in  182G  (as  well  as  the 
others  in  the  same  connection)  had  become  inoperative  by 
reason  of  the  part  taken  by  said  country  in  the  inter- 
vention of  1861,  and 

4th.  The  declaration  of  the  same  government  that  for 
the  same  reason,  the  agreement  of  1851  relating  to  the 
payment  of  certain  English  claims,  had  also  become  in- 
operative. 

In  May  followinjr,  Mr.  Mariscal  received  a  note  dated 
April  IDth,  in  which  Lord  Granville,  Her  Majesty's  minis- 
ter of  Foreign  Affairs,  made  known  that  his  government 
would  gladly  take  the  tirst  step  towards  there  renewal  of 
relations,  hoi)ing  that  such  action  would  be  appreciated  by 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  33 

the  govermuent  and  people  of  Mexico,  and  proposing 
that  special  envoys  be  sent  simultaneously  to  London  and 
Mexico  by  each  party  respectively,  who  would  assume  the 
conduct  of  negotiations. 

When  the  note  was  answered  on  May  the  18th,  by  ac- 
cepting the  proposal  in  the  name  of  the  President,  confer- 
ences were  held  in  Mexico  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  the 
preliminaries,  which  were  subscribed  to  on  the  6th  of 
August,  approved  by  the  Senate  on  October  the  20th  and 
published  on  the  27th  of  the  same  month. 

Since  July,  1884,  the  British  envoy  had  been  expressing  a 
wish  to  enter  into  a  treaty  of  friendship,  commerce  and 
navigation  with  Mexico  and,  although  a  Plenipotentiary  ad 
hoc  had  been  appointed  by  the  President  to  discuss  the  mat- 
ter presented,  negotiations  were  suspended  owing  to  a  lack 
of  sufficiently  ample  instructions  on  the  part  of  the  English 
representative  to  give  his  assent  to  certain  clauses  which  the 
Republic  regarded  as  essential. 

The  difficulties  having  been  overcome,  the  treaty  was  con- 
cluded and  signed  on  the  27th  of  November,  1888,  and 
ratified  on  February  the  15th,  1889. 

In  accordance  with  article  fourteen  of  this  treaty,  its 
stipulations  are  to  be  applied  to  all  the  colonies  and  foreign 
possessions  of  her  Brittanic  Majesty,  in  so  far  as  the  laws 
permit,  with  the  exception  of  India,  the  Canadian 
Dominion,  Newfoundland,  New  South  Wales,  Victoria, 
Southern  and  Western  Australia,  Queensland,  Tasmania, 
New  Zealand,  the  Cape  and  Natal ;  being  applicable,  how- 
ever, to  the  colonies  mentioned  or  to  foreign  possessions 
in  whose  interest  notice  may  be  given,  for  that  purpose, 
by  the  representative  of  her  Brittanic  Majesty,  to  the 
Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs  of  the  Republic,  within  two 
years  from  the  date  of  ratification  by  both  countries. 

In  compliance  with  this  condition,  the  British  Legation 
has  given  notice  that   the  British  colonies  which  accepted 


34  THE    IMCIIKS    OF    MEXICO 

the  treaty  were:  N:it;il,  Tasmania,  Western  Australia, 
Victoria,  Newfoundland,  Southern  Australia,  and  the 
Colony  of  Queensland,  and  that  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  colon}'  of  New  Zealand 
desired  to  be  excepted  from  its  stipulations. 


THE    JAPANESE    EMPIRE. 

In  view  of  the  favorable  disposition  evinced  by  Japan  to 
establish  commercial  relations  with  the  Republic,  the  Pres- 
ident commissioned  the  Mexican  Minister  at  Washington 
and  sent  him  the  necessary  instructions,  to  have  an  under- 
standing with  the  representatives  of  that  empire  for  the 
neirotiation  of  a  treaty  of  friendship,  commerce  and  nav- 
igation. This  treat}'  was  signed  in  the  American  capital 
on  the  30th  of  November,  1888,  and  ratified  on  June  the 
14th,  1889. 

EQUADOK. 

The  treaty  of  friendship,  commerce  and  navigation  exist- 
ing between  the  Kepublic  of  Mexico  and  that  of  Equator 
was  concluded  and  signed  in  Washington  on  July  the  KUh, 
1.S88  ;  ratified  October  28th,  1890,  and  the  mutual 
exchange  of  ratification  took  place  November  26th  of  the 
same  year.     Its  duration  is  ten  years. 


THE    DOMINICAN    REPUBLIC. 

The  treaty  of  friendship,  commerce  and  navigation  in 
force  between  Mexico  and  the  Dominican  republic,  was 
signed  in  Mexico  on  March  2!»th,  1890,  and  ratified  on  the 
12th  of  December  in  tlic  same  year.  It  will  last  live  years 
dating  from  the  lUh  of  July,  1891,  wlu'U  it  was  mutually 
ratified. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  35 


ITALY. 

The  period  having  expired  for  the  duration  of  the  treaty 
of  commerce  and  navigation  of  December  the  14th,  1870, 
between  the  republic  and  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  during 
which  a  new  one  was  being  negotiated,  both  governments 
agreed  to  an  extension  which  should  expire  on  June  the 
30th,  1884.  The  new  treaty  was  signed  in  Mexico  on  the 
16th  of  April,  1890,  ratified  on  the  6th  of  July,  1891,  and 
mutually  approved  on  the  23rd  of  the  same  month.  Its 
duration  is  to  be  for  ten  years,  counted  from  the  last  date 
and  its  stipulations  are  to  be  applicable  to  the  colonies  or 
foreign  possessions  of  Italy  in  whose  favor  notice  may  be 
given,  for  this  purpose,  by  the  Italian  representative  in 
Mexico  to  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  of  the  republic, 
during  the  life-time  of  the  treaty. 

UNITED    STATES. 

Several  commercial  treaties  have  been  negotiated  with 
the  republic  of  the  United  States,  but  they  never  became 
operative  owing  to  a  lack  of  ratification  or  to  other  causes. 
That  is  what  happened  to  the  treaty  negotiated  by  Mr. 
Forsyth,  American  Minister  to  Mexico,  with  the  govern- 
ment of  this  nation  in  1857,  in  which  great  concessions  were 
made  to  the  United  States  in  the  isthmus  of  Tehuautepec, 
and  with  the  commercial  reciprocity  treaty  known  as  that 
of  McLane-Ocampo,  which  granted  privileges  to  both 
nations. 

At  the  close  of  1882  the  Secretary  of  Affairs,  designated 
two  commissioners,  who,  jointly  with  those  of  the  United 
States,  might  arrange  a  treaty  of  commercial  reciprocity 
between  the  two  republics. 

On  the  20th  of  Januarj^  1883,  the  agreement  was  con- 
cluded    in     Washington,     Messrs.     Mafias     Romero     and 


3G  THE    laCllES    OF    MEXICO 

Estanishio  Caucdo  having  conducted  the  negotiations  on 
behalf  of  Mexico,  and  General  U.  S.  Grant  and  W.  11. 
Prescot  on  behalf  of  the  United  States.  It  was  ratified 
with  some  moditications  by  the  United  States  Senate  on  the 
11th  of  March,  188-4.  The  modifications  were,  that  to  make 
the  agreement  operative  it  should  be  necessary  for  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States  and  for  the  government  of 
Mexico  to  enact,  beforehand,  the  laws  required  for  its  exe- 
cution and  that  the  respective  measures  should  be  taken 
within  sixteen  mouths  from  the  date  of  ratification  by  both 
parties.  These  modifications  having  been  approved,  the 
treaty  was  ratified  on  the  14th  of  May,  1884,  by  the  Mexi- 
can Senate.  The  respective  legislation  not  having  been  en- 
acted by  the  two  governments  the  period  of  sixteen  months 
was  extended  by  means  of  a  protocol,  signed  in  "Washing- 
ton on  the  25th  of  February,  1885,  to  the  20th  of  May, 
1886  and,  by  a  supplementary  document  dated  May,  14th, 
1886,  a  still  further  extension  to  May  the  20th,  1887,  was 
granted.  As  no  further  extension  of  the  period  last  desig- 
nated has  been  given,  a  new  instrument  will  be  necessary 
to  resurrect  the  previous  treaty. 

EXTRADITION  TREATIES. 

The  United  States. 

IV.  The  treaty  of  December  11th,  1861,  for  the  extradi- 
tion of  criminals,  in  force  between  Mexico  and  the  United 
States,  has  presented  difficulties  in  practice.  Criminals 
who  commit  an  offense  in  Mexico  elude  justice  by  crossing 
to  American  territory,  where  it  has  been  impossible  to 
secure  their  surrender,  for  the  reason  that  the  accused  have 
recourse  to  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus,  of  which  the 
Sui)rcine  Court  and  other  tribunals  of  that  country,  have 
jurisdiction,  and  the  government  oflScials  have  refused  to 
surrender  the  criminals,  or  for  tke  reason  that  Iho  govern- 


AND    ITS    IXSTITUTIOXS.  37 

menl  has  thought  that  the  text  of  one  of  the  articles  of  the 
treaty,  declaring  that  the  extradition  of  its  own  subjects 
was  not  obligatory  on  either  of  the  contracting  parties, 
forbade  the  surrender  to  the  Mexican  authorities  of  Amer- 
ican-born citizens  accused  of  crime  and  wanted  by  the 
Mexican  government. 

In  the  correspondence  which  passed  between  the  two 
governments  Mexico  has  sought  to  demonstrate  that  ex- 
tradition is  an  exalted  administrative  act  pertaining  to  the 
Executive  by  virtue  of  a  compact  between  the  two  nations 
and  that,  a  treaty  being  a  law  for  the  countries  by  which 
the  stipulation  was  entered  into,  its  enforcement  cannot  be 
subject  to  a  previous  review  by  judicial  authority;  that, 
finally,  in  regard  to  the  extradition  of  native-born  citizens 
the  treaty  does  not  deny  but  concedes  to  the  Executive  the 
right  to  grant  it  whenever  he  may  deem  it  advisable. 

The  President  of  the  American  Union  has  declared  that 
it  was  his  sincere  conviction  that  the  crimes  committed  on 
both  sides  of  the  frontier  should  not  go  unpunished,  and 
has  also  indicated  various  methods  to  give  force  to  the 
treaty  of  extradition  so  that  its  opportune  and  energetic 
enforcement  may  afford  the  necessary  protection  and  guar- 
anty to  the  border  populations  of  each  country.  With 
such  intentions  a  new  treaty  has  been  negotiated  whereby 
the  disputes  arising  from  the  enforcement  of  that  of  18G1 
should  be  avoided.  By  this  it  has  been  declared  in  an  in- 
contestible  manner  that  both  governments  can  exchano-e 
their  native-born  citizens  when  necessity  may  arise  for  not 
allowing  criminals  to  go  unpunished,  and  that  certain  rules 
should  be  established  in  regard  to  the  time  during  which  a 
prisoner  accused  of  crime  may  be  held  while  legal  proceed- 
ings are  pending  and  while  the  question  of  extradition  is 
being  settled. 

The  treaty  mentioned,  which  was  concluded  in  Washing- 
ton on  February  20th,  1885,   underwent  important  altera- 


38  Tili:    KICIIKS    OF    MKXICO 

tions  on  ihc  part  of  both  governments  ;iml  it  became 
necessary  again  to  consider  it,  but  nothing  has  resulted 
from  such  consideration  up  to  the  present  time. 

Recently  (January  18th,  1892)  the  Government  of  Mexico, 
in  conformity  with  its  policy  of  facilitating  the  demands  of 
justice  of  the  United  States,  has  issued  an  important  circu- 
lar, through  the  medium  of  the  Department  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  in  which  it  is  founded  that  when  demand  has  been 
made  by  the  United  States  of  America  for  the  extradition 
of  any  individual,  even  though  the  latter  should  claim  to  be 
a  Mexican  citizen  at  the  time  such  demand  is  made,  he  must 
be  detained  and  closely  guarded  and  held  subject  to  the 
disposition  of  the  Department  in  question,  but  must  not  be 
delivered  up  except  by  express  request  of  the  President  of 
the  Republic,  communicated  through  the  Department  of 
Foreign  Affairs.  In  the  meanwhile  the  required  authority 
will  take  the  preliminary  steps  to  institute  judicial  pro- 
ceedings or  request  that  he  be  instructed  by  competent 
judicial  authority  in  order  that  the  nationality  of  the  pre- 
sumed criminal  may  be  determined. 

The  result  must  be  communicated  to  the  Department  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  accompanied  by  a  copy  of  the  judicial  pro- 
ceedings, in  order  that  the  final  action  may  be  taken. 

Belgium . 

The  government  of  Belgium  consulted  that  of  the  Re- 
public as  to  whether  it  felt  disposed  to  conclude  a  treaty  of 
extradition  with  that  kingdom,  and  the  government  of 
Mexico  having  expressed  its  willingness,  the  Envoy  Extraor- 
dinary and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  of  Belgium  submitted 
a  proposition  which,  with  a  few  moditications,  was  signed 
in  Mexico  on  the  12th  day  of  May,  1881,  and  approved  by 
the  Mexican  Senate  on  the  24th  of  November  of  the  same 
year.    On  the  1  Itli  of  March,  1882,  the  treaty  having  been, 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  3<) 

previously,  mutually    ratified,   the  proper  publio:it ion    was 
made  whereby  efiect  was  given  to  the  treaty. 

The  agreement  was  entered  into  for  five  years  to  date 
from  its  ratification  on  March  13th,  1882,  and  to  go  into 
operation  three  months  after  the  date  of  ratification.  It 
was  to  remain  in  force  twelve  months  from  the  time  when 
either  of  the  two  governments  should  express  a  wish  that 
the  treaty  should  terminate. 

Spain. 

A  treaty  of  like  character  was  arranged  between  Mexico 
and  Spain  and  by  them  approved  on  November  the  17th, 
1881.  The  same  was  mutually  ratified  on  March  the  3d,  1883, 
in  consequence  of  an  extension  having  been  granted  of  the 
time  mentioned  therein  for  such  purpose.  The  treaty  was 
promulgated  in  Mexico  on  the  4th  of  the  same  month.  Its 
duration  is  indefinite  as  it  will  only  cease  to  be  effective 
when  either  of  the  contracting  parties  terminate  the 
same  by  twelve  months'  notice  of  a  wish  to  do  so.  This 
was  the  first  treaty  arranged  with  Spain  after  the  can- 
cellation of  those  in  force  on  account  of  the  war  of  inter- 
vention. 

Great  Britain. 

A  treaty  of  extradition  also  exists  with  the  kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  which  was  signed  in  Mexico  on 
September  the  7th,  1886,  approved  by  Congress  on  Decem- 
ber the  10th,  1887,  and  by  her  Britannic  Majesty  on 
December  the  10th  of  the  same  year ;  the  respective  docu- 
ments being  exchanged  in  Mexico  on  the  22nd  of  January, 
1889.  This  treaty  is  of  indefinite  duration  and  can  only 
be  terminated  by  one  of  the  contracting  parties  on  a 
notice  of  not  less  than  six  months  and  of  not  more  than  a 
year. 


40  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 


INTERNATIONAL    AGREEMENTS 

Telegrajyhic  Arrangement  heticeen  Mexico  and  Guatemala. 

V.  On  the  5th  of  February,  1887,  an  agreement  relative  to 
telegraphic  communicatioa  was  signed  in  Mexico  by  these 
republics,  in  which  it  was  stipulated  that  a  telegraphic 
station  should  be  established  at  Nenton  in  Guatemala  ter- 
ritory close  to  the  station  of  that  country  for  the  purpose 
of  effecting  the  immediate  transmission  of  dispatches 
addressed  to  one  or  the  other  republic,  or  of  those  which  it 
may  be  necessary  to  forward  to  other  countries  through 
their  respective  territories.  This  agreement  went  into 
effect  on  the  first  of  June  in  the  same  year  when  it  was 
mutually  ratified. 

International   Agreement    Relative   to    the  Publication  of 
Custom  House  Duties. 

By  a  decree  of  the  31st  of  October,  1890,  the  Mexican 
Senate  approved  the  agreement  signed  in  Brussels  on  the 
5th  of  July  of  the  same  j^ear  by  the  respective  delegates, 
for  the  establishment  of  an  international  union,  having  for 
its  object  the  publication  in  the  several  countries  comprised 
in  such  union  of  the  custom  house  duties  of  the  different 
countries  of  the  globe,  together  with  subsequent  changes 
and  modifications.  The  agreement  went  into  effect  on  the 
1st  of  April,  1891,  and  will  remain  in  force  for  seven  years. 
If  the  agreement  should  not  be  canceled  twelve  months 
prior  to  the  expiration  of  such  period,  it  will  continue  in 
force  seven  years  longer  and  so  on,  for  every  seven  years. 
The  revocation  of  the  contract  shall  be  addressed  to  the 
Belgian  government  and  will  only  affect  the  country  niak- 
injx  it,  the  agreement  remaininii:  in  force  for  the  other 
nations  comprised  in  the  union. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  41 

CLAIMS. 

United  States. 

VI.  On  July  the  4th,  1868,  an  agreement  was  entered  into 
between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of 
deciding  the  claims  made  by  citizens  of  Mexico  against  the 
United  States  and  vice  versa  for  losses  sustained  subsequent 
to  February  the  2d,  1848.  By  this  agreement  a  mixed  com- 
mission was  established  composed  of  one  Mexican  and  one 
American  and  a  third  party  to  be  selected  by  these  two 
3®intly  who  should  decide  in  case  of  a  disagreement  between 
the  other  two.  The  commission  was  to  remain  in  existence 
for  two  years  and  six  months  from  the  date  of  its  first 
session.  On  the  19th  of  April,  1871,  the  agreement  was 
continued  to  January  31st,  1873,  but  not  being  able  to 
terminate  its  labors  in  this  interval,  a  new  contract,  en- 
tered into  on  November  the  27th,  1872,  extended  the  time 
for  two  years  more.  On  November  the  20th,  1874,  a 
further  extension  was  granted  to  January  the  31st,  1876, 
granting  to  the  Board  of  Arbitration,  for  the  purpose  of 
deciding  the  cases  submitted  to  it,  a  still  further  extension 
to  November  the  20th  of  the  same  year,  when  the  commis- 
sion completed  its  labors. 

The  sum  total  demanded  of  Mexico  amounted  to  $470,- 
126,613.40  but  indemnity  was  granted  only  to  American 
claimants  in  different  kinds  of  money  to  the  value  of 
$4,125,622.20. 

The  indemnities  demanded  by  Mexicans  amounted  to 
$86,661,891.15  but  they  were  allowed  in  different  kinds  of 
money,  only  $150,498.41. 

Mexico,  by  reason  of  the  stipulations  contained  in  the 
agreement  of  July,  1868,  had  therefore  to  pay  to  the 
American  government  annual  installments  of  $300,000  in 
gold  or  its  equivalent,  to  begin  on  January  the  31st,  1877, 


42  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

and  to  continue  till  the  liniil  liquidation  of  the  difference 
between  the  indemnities  granted  to  the  citizens  of  the  two 
republics. 

Among  the  claims  adjudicated  against  Mexico  thcie  are 
two  of  such  a  character  that  the  board  which  made  the 
award  expressed  a  desire  that  they  should  be  reconsidered. 
One  of  these  is  that  of  Benjamin  Weil  for  the  alleged  con- 
fiscation of  1,914  bales  of  cotton,  for  which  Mexico  was 
condemned  to  pay  $487,810.68;  the  other,  that  of  the 
mining  company  known  as  "  La  Abra  "  for  the  pretended 
forced  abandonment  of  a  business  which,  having  been 
really  abandoned  as  unproductive,  was  made  the  basis  of  a 
claim  against  Mexico  and  by  the  subornation  of  witnesses 
and  bv  means  of  criminal  proceedings,  secured  for  those 
who  hatched  the  scheme,  a  favorable  award  in  the  sum  of 
$683,041.32. 

The  Mexican  government  which  possessed  sufficient 
proofs  to  evidently  demonstrate  the  fraudulent  character 
of  said  claims,  succeeded,  after  six  years  of  incessant 
effort,  in  concluding  an  agreement  which  was  signed  in 
Washington  on  July  the  13th,  1882,  and  was  approved  by 
the  Mexican  Senate  on  the  7th  of  October  in  the  same 
year.  By  virtue  of  this  agreement  the  claims  mentioned 
were  to  be  subjected  to  a  new  investigation  and  revision  ; 
the  decree  of  the  commission  which  had  officiated  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  agreement  of  1868  in  relation  to  the 
payments  not  made  by  Mexico  prior  to  January'  31st,  1882, 
to  be  null  and  void. 

Necessary'  investigation  having  l)een  made  in  a  perfectly 
impartial  manner,  the  majority  of  the  commission  presented 
a  rejwrt,  as  a  result  of  their  researches,  declaring  that  the 
claim  was  of  a  fraudulent  character  based  upon  false  i)roofs. 
One  of  the  parties  interested  in  this  claim  de<manded  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  at  Washington  why  he  did  not  nnrfce  a 
distribution    of  the   sums   deposited    to   the  credit  of  this 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  43 

claimant  and  his  associates,  but  his  demand  was  rejectevl  by 
the  proper  tribunal. 

In  January,  1890,  the  lastpa^'ment  of  $74,138  was  made 
in  Hquidation  of  the  final  installment  on  the  part  of 
Mexico,  in  compliance  with  the  agreement  of  1868,  the 
entire  claim  of  the  United  States,  amounting  to  n'early 
$4,000,000,  being  thus  canceleJ,  leaving  to  Mexico  the  hope 
of  recovering,  without  doubt,  the  amount  represented  by 
the  fraudulent  claims  of  Weil  and  "  La  Abra." 


Spain. 

A  diplomatic  incident  which  occurred  in  1883  served  to 
demonstrate  once  more  the  strength  of  the  friendship  ex- 
isting between  Spain  and  Mexico,  for,  notwithstanding  that 
it  was  indispensable  for  the  Republic  to  enter  upon  the  con- 
sideration of  the  question  raised  by  the  Spanish  Minister, 
he  made  no  concession,  in  accordance  with  the  frankness 
with  which  he  has  always  conducted  his  international  policy. 

Mr.  Mariscal,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  expresses 
himself  in  the  following  manner  in  relation  to  this  inci- 
dent :  — 

"  Mr.  Crespo,  in  connection  with  the  action  taken  by  the 
Senate  Chamber  on  the  13th  of  June,  1883,  approving  the 
legal  enactment  whereby  tne  Executive  was  empowered  to 
undertake  the  adjustment  of  the  National  Debt,  sent  a 
note  dated  the  17th,  of  the  same  month,  to  our  Secretary  of 
Affairs,  declaring,  on  behalf  of  his  govern-ment,  that  the 
latter  considered  the  contract  entered  into  between  Mexico 
and  Spain  on  November  the  12th,  1853,  as  in  force  at  the 
time,  without  prejudice  to  the  holders  of  bonds  to  exercise 
full  freedom  in  presenting  or  not  presenting  their  claims 
in  connection  with  the  projected  agreement,  their  rights 
to  be  reserved  in  the  latter  event.  On  the  2(3th  of  the 
following     month     answer    was    made    that    the    ^Mexican 


44  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

government  bad  maintained  and  would  always  maintain 
the  non-continuance  of  said  agreement  for  the  follow- 
ing reasons,  among  others:  1st.  That  when  the  republic 
was  re-established  in  1867  the  legislative  and  ex- 
ecutive authorities  declared  the  old  contracts  void  which 
had  been  entered  into  with  the  European  Powers  that  had 
made  war  on  Mexico.  2nd.  That  this  announcement  was 
not  in  conflict  with  the  practice  of  nations  but  in  conformity 
therewith  and  especially  with  the  practice  of  Spam.  3rd. 
That  in  discussing  with  Spain  the  resumption  of  diplomatic 
relations,  information  was  obtained  from  three  diflerent 
sources,  the  government  of  the  United  States,  his  Ex- 
cellency General  Prin  and  from  Mr.  Mobellan,  that  the 
basis  of  such  resumption  would  be  the  cessation  of  the  old 
contracts  between  Mexico  and  Spain.  4th.  That  Spain  ac- 
cepted this  basis  as,  in  1871,  she  sent,  without  raising  any 
objection  thereto,  his  Excellency  Don  Feliciano  Herreros 
deFejuda  as  minister  to  Mexico,  and  5th.  That  this  gentle- 
man signed  a  protocol  with  the  Minister  of  Aft'airs  (my- 
self) in  which  he  acknowledged  that  diplomatic  relations 
had  been  resumed  upon  such  basis. 

Mr.  Crespo  or  his  govcinmcnt  not  having  insisted, 
either  from  conviction  or  because  of  a  frendly  deference, 
upon  the  claims  made  in  the  note  to  which  I  refer,  the 
incident  led  to  no  consequences." 

Guatemala . 

On  January  the  26th,  1888,  an  agreement  was  entered 
into  with  the  republic  of  Guatemala  relative  to  claims 
made  by  each  country,  and  on  tho  loth  of  Febuary,  1881), 
a  protocol  was  signed  for  tho  purpose  of  removing  difficult- 
ies arising  in  Guatemala  upon  a  review  of  the  contract 
of  January  26th,  of  which  tlu'  two  first  articles  had  to  be 
corrected. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  45 

The  Mexican  Senate  approved  the  corrective  agreement 
on  the  22d  of  November,  1889,  and,  on  the  2d  of  the  fol- 
lowing month,  the  alterations  made  in  said  agreement  by 
an  enactment  of  the  legislative  assembly  of  Guatemala  on 
May  the  31st,  1889  ;  and  the  action  thus  taken  was  mutu- 
ally ratified  on  January  the  18th,  1890. 

A  mixed  commission  is  established  by  this  agreement 
consisting  of  two  individuals  designated  respectively  by  the 
President  of  each  republic  with  the  understanding  that  no 
claims  shall  be  admitted,  based  upon  events  occurring 
prior  to  1873,  as  the  claims  based  upon- prior  occurrences 
or  arising  from  losses  and  injuries  inflicted  in  disputed 
territory  before  the  boundaries  of  the  two  republics  had 
been  definitely  determined  (granting  it  to  be  impossible 
to  decide  the  legality  of  such  events  without  determining 
to  which  of  the  two  nations  the  territory  belonged  in  which 
they  occurred),  should  be  referred  by  the  commissioners  to 
their  respective  governments,  to  be  adjusted,  at  the  instance 
of  the  interested  parties,  by  the  ordinary  authorities 
according  to  law,  without  recourse  to  diplomatic  action 
unless  where  justice  may  be  denied.  The  mixed  commis- 
sion when  occasion  may  require,  shall  take  cognizance  of 
the  exceptions  raised,  including  the  claim  of  prescription, 
deciding  them  in  accordance  with  general  legal  principles. 
The  commission  convened  and  began  its  work  on  July  the 
30th,  1890. 

ECONOMIC    REGULATIONS. 

The  development  of  the  diplomatic  and  commercial  re- 
lations of  Mexico  with  other  countries  led  to  a  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  different  departments  of  the  Secretaryship  of 
Affairs,  a  new  commercial  department  having  been  created 
in  which  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  consular  service  of 
the  Republic  and  to  the  protection  of  its  commerce  abroad, 
were  to  be  centered,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  fixed 


46  Tin:  riciiks  of  mkxico 

by  the  rcguhiticjiis  of  February  the  11th,  l'S84,  for  the 
internal  management  of  the  Department  of  Foreign  Afiair*. 
This  Department  embraces  all  the  commercial  data  sent  to 
the  secretary  periodically  by  the  consular  agents,  —  an 
aggregation  which  makes  known  our  commercial  require- 
ments with  other  nations. 

The  decree  of  January  the  24th,  1854,  relative  to  exemp- 
tions from  customs  duty  in  favor  of  diplomatic  agents  has 
been  subjected  to  considerable  changes.  The  Seci'ctary  of 
Affairs  took  sufficient  notice  of  the  suggestions  made  by 
the  foreign  diplomatic  agents  residing  in  Mexico  to  exempt 
from  the  payment  of  customs  duties  certain  goods  intended 
for  their  special  use  and  initiated  a  measure  by  virtue  of 
which  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  secured  the  enactment 
of  the  22d  of  May,  1885,  whereby  the  concessions  indi- 
cated are  clearly  defined  in  the  most  appropriate  manner. 

The  Secretary  of  Affairs  submitted  a  measure  of  impor- 
tance to  the  National  Congress  on  the  15th  of  October, 
1885,  accompanying  it  by  a  bill  relating  to  citizenship  of 
foreigners  based  upon  a  communication  of  Mr.  Vallarta 
and  sul)mitted  for  the  purpose  to  the  Secretary. 

After  some  moditications  the  bill  became  a  law  on  Ma}- 
the  28th,  1886,  and  was  classified  as  an  enactment  con- 
cerning citizenship  and  naturalization. 


MEXICAN  DIPLOMATIC  BODY. 

Vn.  In  accordance  with  a  law  dated  the  7th  of  March, 
1886,  i-egulatiiig  the  Mexican  diplomatic  body,  the  relations 
of  the  Kepublic  with  foreign  governments  are  intrusted  to  the 
following  kinds  of  missions:  Special  and  Plenipotentiary 
missions:  Extraordinary  Plenipotentiary  Legations  or  merely 
Plcnipotentiaiv  ones:  Ifesident  Minister  Le«i;ati()ns :  CharLV 
d'Affaires  Legations.  The  President  of  the  Republic  is 
the  i)erson  who  appoints  the  agents  and  diplomatic  employes 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  47 

and  also  with  the  Senate's  approbation  the  heads  of  mis- 
sions. It  is  the  President  who  directs  diplomatic  negotia- 
tions through  the  secretaryship  of  State  and  of  the  Foreign 
Affairs  Office.  To  this  secretaryship  all  the  diplomatic 
bodies  of  Mexico  are  subject ;  to  it  they  all  look  for  their 
instructions  as  well  as  for  the  approval  or  disapproval  of 
their  acts. 

The  personnel  of  the  diplomatic  missions  is  made  up  of 
the  following  functionaries  and  employes: 

I.  Special  Envoys  and  Plenipotentiary  Ministers,  Extra- 
ordinary Envoys  and  Plenipotentiary  Ministers. 

II.  Resident  Ministers. 

III.  Charge  d' Affaires. 

lY.  Charge  d' Affaires  ad  interim  (temporary). 

V.  First  secretaries. 

VI.  Second  and  third  secretaries. 

VII.  Aggregates. 

The  secretaries  who  as  substitutes  perform  the  duties  of 
a  head  of  a  mission,  during  the  latter's  absence  or  sickness, 
are  the  Charges  d' Affaires  ad  in(eri7n,  and  to  undertake 
such  a  charge  they  do  not  need  the  Senate's  approbation. 
When  cases  of  that  kind  arise  the  duties  of  the  first  secre- 
tary are  fulfilled  by  the  second  and  so  on  successively,  but 
all  such  duties  are  of  an  accidental  and  temporary  charac- 
ter and  do  not  imply  any  promotion.  The  aggregates  or 
supernumeraries  do  not  receive  any  salary  and  are  bound 
to  engage  themselves  to  follow  a  diplomatic  career  when 
the  government  appoints  military  or  naval  aggregates  to 
missions,  as  it  may  sometimes  deem  convenient ;  they  must 
be  officers  in  the  army  or  navy  and  have  no  duties  except 
their  military  and  naval  studies  and  must  give  due  attention 
to  etiquette.  They  have  no  right  to  take  precedence  as 
belonging  to  the  diplomatic  body.  Promotions  from  the 
position  of  Aggregate  to  that  of  Charge  d' Affaires  are 
strictly  given  to  priority  of  age. 


48  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

The   .salaries  of   the  heads  of  missions  and    diplomatic 
employes,  as  well  as  the  official  and  extraordinary  expenses 
of  each  Legation  are  settled  in  the  first  place  by  the  law 
which  establishes  the  mission,  and  afterwards  by  the  law 
reijulating  the    estimates.     Diplomatic    ministers    sent  to 
Europe  and  the  United  States  receive  for  their  traveling  and 
household    expenses    ten    thousand    dollars,    whilst    those 
destined  for    what    was   formerly  Spanish  America   eight 
thousand,  which  amount   is  equally  divided    between    the 
two  above  mentioned  purposes.     For  the  expenses  of  their 
return  voyage  to  the  Republic  they  receive  a  like  sum.    The 
first,  second  and  third  secretaries  of  Legations  have  for  the 
expenses  of  their  journey  to  their  destination  the  half  of 
their  respective  yearly  salaries  and    this  amount  they  re- 
ceive on  starting  from  the  Republic.     They  receive  a  third 
part  of  their  yearly  salaries  when  transferred  from  one  Le- 
o-ation  to  another.     For  their  return  journey  expenses  they 
receive  the    same  amount   as   is  given    for  their  outward 
journey.     The  secretaries  charged   with  ad  interim  affairs 
enjoy  half  of  the  salary  appointed  for  the  ministers  whose 
places  they  take  ;  and  if  the  substitute  be   a  first  secretary 
and  hold  the  position  service  economy,  the  extraordinary 
expenses  of  the   secretaryship,  accounts  with  the  general 
treasury:  to  publish  and  forward  requisitorial  letters  re- 
ceived from  abroad  and  also  those  sent  from  the  Rejniblic  to 
foreign   countries;   the  general   record  of  the  nation;   all 
matters  which  do  not  pertain  to  the  other  sections.      The 
ca.sh  which  comes  into  the    secretaryship  either  by  reason 
of  the  dues  exacted  by  it,  or  which  enters    by  any  other 
title  is  kept  under  double  locks  and  keys  and  in  the  custody 
of  the    Chancellor    in   such  [)iace    as    the   superior    ofiicial 
designates.      A  special  writer  indites  all  the  cabinet  letters 
and  all  other  diplomatic   documents   which    require  more 
care  and  attention  then  the  ordinary  ones. 

The  Translatoks  attached  to  tlic  Chancellorship  trans-- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  49 

late  all  documents,  pamphlets  or  newspaper  articles  required 
by  any  section  according  as  the  superior  official  directs 
and  when  they  happen  to  have  no  translation  to  do  they  are 
employed  as  ordinary  clerks. 

The  Port  Official  or  sorter  has  under  his  charge  the 
entiy  of  the  documents  of  every  kind  which  come  in  or  go 
out.  These  he  notes  separately,  clearly  and  with  precision, 
selecting  the  essential  points  of  their  contents  and  advising 
thereof  the  section  or  department  to  which  they  rightly 
belong  and  to  which  he  is  bound  under  the  strictest  re- 
sponsibility to  send  them  without  delay;  he  copies  under 
the  direction  of  the  superior  oificial  into  their  respective 
books  the  consents  given  by  the  President  at  ministerial 
meetings  and  those  which  he  gives  with  reference  to  this 
particular  secretaryship. 

Record  AND  Library  Section. —  The  duties  of  this  sec- 
tion are  :  to  keep  in  perfect  order  all  the  documents  which 
already  exist  in  it  and  those  which  enter  it  from  other  sec- 
tions as  completed  documents,  all  of  which  must  be 
formed  into  books  under  the  headings  and  according 
to  the  subjects  they  treat  of,  to  make  a  collection  of 
the  national  and  foreign  periodicals  received  in  the  sec- 
retaryship to  gather  together  the  laws,  decrees  and 
regulations  issued  from  the  other  secretaryships  of  State 
and  to  have  them  circulated  in  foreign  countries,  to  collect 
and  forward  publications  intended  for  exchange  with  other 
governments  as  also  to  receive  and  compile  the  ones  sent 
by  the  latter  ;  the  preservation  and  proper  arrangement  of 
the  library  ;  to  look  after  its  catalogues  and  indexes.  Within 
this  last  duty  are  comprised  the  Geographical  Charts,  plans 
and  papers  relating  to  the  boundary  lines  of  the  Republic; 
to  supply  the  secretary,  superior  official  and  the  depart- 
mental and  sectional  principals  with  the  books  and  docu- 
ments they  may  need  for  the  dispatch  of  business;  no  book 
or  paper  belonging  to  the  records  must  be  parted  with  nor 

4 


50  THE    KICHES    OF   MEXICO 

must  a  partial  or  entire  copy  be  given  to  any  person,  ex- 
cept those  mentioned,  without  a  special  order  from  the 
secretary  or  superior  official.  When  cases  arise  where  it 
is  necessary  to  allow  a  book  or  documentary  record  to  leave 
the  library,  in  addition  to  a  statement  of  such  act  being 
placed  in  the  book  or  document  itself,  another  book  must  be 
put  in  the  place  from  which  it  was  taken,  notifying  the  same 
thing.  It  is  also  a  duty  of  this  section  to  take  care  to  de- 
mand from  other  secretaryships,  whenever  necessary,  a  due 
number  of  copies  of  all  the  laws  and  regulations  issued  by 
them  and  the  latter  are  bound  to  supply  such  copies  if 
they  are  meant  for  circulation  or  to  form  the  collection  of 
records. 

DIPLOMATIC    REPRESENTATION. 

Mexico  has  diplomatic  representation  in  Germany, 
Belgium,  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  England,  Italy,  United 
States  and  Central  America. 

The  following  Powers  are  represented  in  Mexico  :  Great 
Britain,  Dominican  Republic,  Germany,  Belgium,  United 
States,  Spain,  France,  Costa  Rica,  Italy  and  Republic 
Argentina. 

CONSULAR    AGENCIES, 

There  are  Consular  Agents  of  Mexico  in  the  following 
cities  :  — 

Europe. 

Germany,  at  Bremen,  Berlin,  Frankfort  on  the  Main, 
Hamburg,  Karlsruhe,  Leipzig,  Mannheim  and  Mayence. 

Belgium,  at  Amljcres  Brussels,  and  Ghent. 

Denmark,  Saint  Thomas. 

Spain,  Alicant,  Barcelona,  Bilbao,  Cadiz,  C6rdoba, 
C<<runna,  Ferrol  Gijon,  (Jranada,  Havana,  Iluelva,  Jerez  dc 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  51 

la  Frontera,  Irun,  Las  Palmas,  Madrid,  Malaga,  Manila, 
Palma  de  Mallorca,  Porto  Rico,  Santa  Cruz  de  Tenerife, 
Santa  Maria,  Santander,  San  Sebastian,  Santiago  de  Cuba, 
Sevilla,  Valencce  and  Vigo. 

France,  atBayonme,  Bourdeaux,  Fort  de  France,  Havre, 
Marseilles,  Nice,  Paris,  St.  Jean  de  Luz  y  Hendaya,  St. 
Nazaire  and  St.  Malo. 

England,  at  Barrow-in-Furness,  Bridgetown,  Cardiff, 
Dover,  Dublin,  Faltmouth,  Gibraltar,  Glasgow,  Great 
Grimsby,  Hong-Kong,  Liverpool,  London,  Manchester, 
Montreal,  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  Newport,  Mon,  Southampton 
and  Swansea. 

Italy,  at  Florence,  Genoa,  Messina,  Naples,  Palermo 
iind  Rome. 

Low  COUNTRIES,  at  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam. 
Portugal,  Lisbon  and  Oporto. 

Sweden  and  Norway,  at  Gotemburgo  and  Stockholm. 
Switzerland  at  Geneva  and  Vevev. 

America . 

United  States,  at  Boston,  Brownsville,  Chicago,  Darn- 
ing, Eagle  Pass,  El  Paso,  Philadelphia,  Galveston,  Kansas 
City,  Laredo,  Los  Angeles,  Nogales,  New  Orleans,  New 
York,  Pansacola,  Rio  Grande  City,  Roma,  San  Antonio, 
San  Francisco,  San  Diego,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  Tucson. 

Columbia,  at  Bogota,  Colon  and  Panama. 

Guatemala,  at  Guatemala,  Libertad,  Quetzaltenango 
and  Retalhuleo. 

Salvador,  San  Salvador. 

Venezuela,  at  Caracas,  Carupano,  La  Guayra  and 
Maracaibo. 

Argentina,  at  Buenos  Aires. 

Bolivia,  at  La  Paz. 

Costa  Rica,  at  San  Jose. 

Chili,  at  Valparaiso. 


5i  THE    KICHES    OF    MKXICO 

Dominican  Eepublic,  at  Santo  Domiugo. 
Equator,  at  Guayaquil  and  Quito. 
Uruguay,  at  Montevideo. 
Haiti,  at  Port-au-Prince. 

Oceania. 
Hawaii,  at  Honolulu. 


FOREIGN  consular  AGENCIES  IN  MEXICO. 

The  representatives  of  the  foreign  powers  in  the  Repub- 
lic of  Mexico  are  residing  in  the  following  cities  : — 


Uu7'ope. 

Germany,  has  representatives  in  Acapulco,  Carmen 
(Island),  Chihuahua,  Colima,  Durango,  Guadalajara, 
Guanajuato,  Guaymas,  Mazatlau,  Mcrida,  Mexico,  ^lon- 
terey,  Morelia,  Oaxaca,  Puebla,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Tampico, 
Tehuantepec,  Chiapas,  Tepic  and  Veracruz. 

Belgium,  at  Acapulco,  Carmen  (Island),  Mazatlan, 
Merida,  Mexico,  Puebla,  Tampico  and  Veracruz. 

Denmark,  Mexico  and  Veracruz. 

Spain,  Carmen  (Island),  Celaya,  Chihuahua,  Cuerna- 
vaca,  Duraniro,  Guadalajara,  Jalapa,  La  Paz,  Matamoros, 
Mazatlan,  Merida,  Prop'eso,  Mexico,  Morelia,  Monterey, 
Oaxaca,  Puebla,  Saltillo,  San  Luis  Potosi,  San  Juaii- 
Bautista,  Tampico,  Tehuantepec,  Tepic,  Tuxpan  and 
Veracruz. 

France,  Acapulco,  Carmen  (Island),  Guanajuato, 
Guadalajara,  Jicaltepec,  San  Rafael,  Mazatlan,  Merida, 
San  Luis  Potosi,  Saltillo,  Tampico,  Tehuantepec,  Tonala, 
Tuxpan  and  V^eraeruz. 

England,  Carmen  (Island),  Mexico,  Guaymas,  Minatit- 
lan,  Mezatlan,  Progrcso,  Tc[)ic  and  Veracruz. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  53 

Italy,  Carmen  (Island),  Mazatlan,  Monterey,  Puebla, 
Tampico  and  Veracruz. 

Low  COUNTRIES,  Veracruz. 

Portugal,  Carmen  (Island),  Mexico,  Oaxaca  and  San 
LuVis  Potosi. 

Sweden  and  Norway,  Carmen  (Island),  Frontera,  Gua- 
dalajara, Guaymas,  Laguna  de  Terminos,  Merida,  Mexico, 
Minatitlan,  Progreso,  San  Juan-Bautista,  Tampico  and 
Veracruz. 

Switzerland,  Mexico. 

America. 

United  States  of  America,  Acapulco,  Altata,  Bahia, 
Magdalena,  Camargo,  Campeche,  Chihuahua,  Ciudad- Vic- 
toria, Coatzacoalcos,  Durango,  Ensenada,  Frontera,  Garita 
Gonzales,  Guadalupe  y  Calvo,  Guanajuato,  Guaymas,  Guer- 
rero (Tamaulipas),  La  Paz,  Laguna  de  Termiuos,  Man- 
zanillo,  Matamoros,  Mazatlan,  Merida,  Mexico,  Mier, 
Minatitlan,  Mouterrey,  Nogales,  Nuevo  Laredo,  Paso  del 
Norte,  Piedras  Negras,  Punta  de  Santa  Cruz,  Saltillo,  San 
Benito  (Chiapas),  San  Bias,  San  Jose,  San  Luis  Potosi, 
Tampico,  Tehuantepec,  Salina  Cruz,  Tuxpan,  Veracruz 
and  Zacatecas. 

Guatemala,  Acapulco,  Guadalajara,  Hermosillo,  Mexico, 
Tapachula  (Chiapas),  Tanpico  and  Veracruz. 

Honduras,  Mexico  and  Veracruz. 

Nicaragua,  Acapulco. 

Peru,  Mexico  and  Mazatlan. 

Paraguay,  Mexico. 

Salvador,  Acapulco  and  Veracruz. 

Santo  Do.mingo,  Mexico. 

Venezuela,  Mexico,  Tampico  and  Veracruz. 

Argentina,  Mexico. 

Columbia,  Acapulco,  Mexico,  Tampico  and  Veracruz. 

Costa  Rica,  Guaymas  and  Veracruz. 


54 


THE    UICIIES    OF    MEXICO 


Chili,  MazatUin,  Mexico  and  Veracruz. 
Equator,  Guaymas  and  Mexico. 

Oceania. 
Hawaii,  Manzanillo  and  Mexico. 


BRIDGE    OF    ''WILD    RATTAN"    OVKR   TlIK    RIVKU   NEXACA. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  55 


CHAPTER  II. 

INTERIOR  DEPARTMENT. 

I.  One  of  the  most  important  works  realized  in  this 
Department  since  the  pacification  of  the  Republic  is  the  re- 
organization of  the  public  powers  of  the  Union  and  those 
of  the  States. 

With  general  good  effect  the  department  has  since  then 
directed  the  home  policy  of  the  country,  pushing  forward 
on  the  road  to  public  peace  and  harmony  between  the 
central  government  and  that  of  the  States.  Thus  it  has 
taken  the  initiative  in  important  reforms  and  introduced 
improvements  in  nearly  all  of  the  branches  dependent  upon 
it,  such  as  public  charities,  security  and  health,  the  drainage 
of  the  valley  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  the  penitentiary  of  the 
District,  etc.,  etc.,  which  works  will  be  treated  of  in  their 
proper  place. 

Although  the  department  of  intercourse  and  public 
works  has  now,  since  the  13th  of  May,  1891,  change  of  the 
postal  service,  yet  it  has  been  deemed  convenient  to  treat 
upon  that  branch  in  this  chapter,  inasmuch  as  the  principal 
reforms  introduced  into  this  most  important  service  of 
public  administration  have,  in  conformity  with  the  decree 
of  April  21st,  1882,  without  exception,  been  introduced  by 
the  government  department. 

The  above  mentioned  are  the  works  detailed  in  this 
chapter,  in  which  will  also  be  included  with  distinction  the 
labors  continued  by  the  new  department. 

POSTAL    SERVICE. 

II.  Ruled  as  it  was  by  the  ordinance  of  the  viceroys  and 
by  other  resolutions  issued  at  that  period,  the  postal  service 


5()  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

could  not  be  but  a  most  irregular  one  whilst  working  under 
a  legislature,  not  only  complicated,  but  inconsistent  with 
the  actual  order  of  things  in  the  country. 

Hence  it  became  urgently  necessary  to  adopt,  for  the 
convenience  of  the  Postal  Service,  a  system  that  would  suit 
the  social  conditions  of  the  country  and  answer  the  purposes 
of  the  increase  of  its  population,  as  well  as  display  greater 
activity  on  its  commercial  and  industrial  fields.  This  the 
Department  of  Interior  proposed  to  do  by  introducing, 
on  the  8th  of  December,  1881,  in  the  House  of  Deputies,  a 
bill  to  that  effect.  When  this  bill  had  passed.  Congress 
published,  on  the  21st  of  April,  1882,  a  decree  authorizing 
the  President  of  the  Republic  to  introduce  the  much  needed 
reform  bearing  upon  the  Postal  Service. 

The  labors  of  the  special  commission  appointed  to  draw 
up  the  project  to  that  end  were  finished  in  October  of  that 
same  year,  and,  on  the  18th  of  April  of  the  following  year, 
the  decree  of  the  reform  was  published  and  ordered  to  be 
put  into  effect  on  the  1st  of  January,  1884. 

Since  that  date  the  Postal  Service  in  the  United  States 
of  Mexico  is  a  public  one  of  the  Union,  and  continued  to 
depend  upon  the  Interior  Department  until  the  loth  of 
May,  1891,  when  it  passed  to  form  part  of  the  Department 
of  Intercourse  and  Public  Works,  created  by  the  decree  of 
that  same  date. 

The  new  postal  law  classifies  in  the  following  manner 
the  objects  which  the  Post-office  undertakes  to  convey:  — 

Firsf. 

WRITTEN    COKRESPODENCE. 

This  class  comprises  the  official  communications,  letters, 
and  all,  or  partially  so,  —  manuscripts  or  writings  by  means 
of  transcribers,  writing  machines,  or  other  like  systems, 
and  also  all  matter  sent  in  closed  envelopes  having  the 
usual  appearance  of  pieces  of  correspondence. 


MANLEL  ROMEKO  RUBIO. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  57 

Second. 

PERIODICAL  PUBLICATIONS. 

This  class  comprises  publications  made  on  regulation 
sheets  issued  in  intervals  of  not  less  than  three  months  and 
furnished  with  date  of  issue  and  number  in  progressive 
order,  publications  in  the  form  of  printed  sheets  without 
pasteboard,  morocco,  leather,  linen  and  other  matters  used 
in  covers;  publications  having  for  their  object  anything  of 
interest  to  the  public,  viz.;  politics,  literature,  science, 
art,  or  special  industry;  but  excluding  all  such  pl^blications 
as,  while  fulfilling  some  of  these  conditions,  still  owe  their 
existence  only  to  the  fact  of  publishing  matters  of  private 
interest. 

Third. 

ALL   PRINTS    NOT    EMBRACED    IN    THE    FORMER  CLASSES 

such  as  books,  official  circulars,  business  papers,  publica- 
tions not  on  newspaper  sheets,  originals  sent  to  press, 
proofs  of  printings,  with  or  without  corrections,  and  their 
originals. 

Fourth . 

DIVERSE    MATTER. 

In  this  class  is  comprised  all  that  matter  which,  not  figur- 
ing in  the  first,  second  and  third  classes,  appears  suscepti- 
ble, by  their  bulk,  form,  weight  or  nature,  to  be  conveyed 
by  the  mails. 

The  mail  does  not  carry  the  following  objects : — 

1st.  Those  exceeding  in  dimensions  20  centimeters  in 
length,  10  in  breadth  and  5  in  depth.  Nevertheless,  when 
objects  of  greater  dimensions  do  not  injure  the  contents  of 
the  mail  bags,  the  Postmaster  may  allow  their  conveyance. 

2nd.  Objects  causing  customs  duties. 


58  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

Srd.  Correspondence,  prints,  objects  and  parcels  the 
weight  of  which  exceeds,  in  one  sinsrle  bulk,  two  kilo- 
grams.  But  books  belonging  to  private  industries,  docu- 
ments and  books  of  public  offices,  even  if  each  of  these  be 
of  greater  weight,  may  be  admitted,  provided  their  dimen- 
sions do  not  make  their  accommodation  in  the  mail  bags, 
difficult  or  impossible  or  do  not  damage  the  objects  for  the 
conveyance  of  which  the  mails  are  specially  destined. 

4th.  Bank  notes,  checks  payable  to  bearer,  moneys, 
jewelry,  precious  stones,  liquids,  poisons,  explosives  or 
inflammables,  grease  stuffs,  matters  easily  meltable,  live 
animals,  corpses  undissected,  sweets,  pastes,  fruits  and 
vegetables  tending  to  decompose,  and  substances  emitting 
bad  odors. 

5th.  Foreign  lottery  tickets. 

6th.  All  obscene  or  immoral  matter. 

The  postage  is  paid  by  means  of  stamps,  and  is,  as  a 
rule,  obligator}".  Only  when  the  objects  are  directed  to 
countries  comprised  in  the  Universal  Postal  Union  is  the 
postage  optional. 

The  correspondence  of  Federal  officers  and  employes,  of 
the  powers  of  the  States  in  their  relation  with  supreme 
powers  of  the  Union,  is  exempt  from  the  obligation  of 
paying  postage.  But  said  official  correspondence,  and  the 
objects  destined  for  public  service,  must  go  in  special 
envelopes  or  with  special  stamps. 

The  correspondence  and  objects  of  the  2ud,  3rd  and  4th 
class  which  are  not  provided  with  postage  stamps  are  not 
forwarded.     By  this  are  understood  the  following  cases:  — 

A.  Correspondence  directed  to  countries  not  comprised  in 
the  Universal  Postal  Union,  not  having  been  furnished  with 
the  stamps  necessary  to  cover  the  total  cost  of  the  postage. 

B.  Internal  correspondence  which  has  not  been  furnished 
with,  at  least,  the  stamps  equivalent  to  the  cost  of  the  post- 
age, corresponding  to   15  grams,  or  when   more  should  be 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  59 

paid,  the  difference  between  the  value  of  the  stamps  which 
it  carries  and  the  amount  it  should  bear,  exceeds  the  post- 
age corresponding  to  30  grams. 

C.  Correspondence  of  the  supreme  powers  of  a  State 
with  the  functionaries  and  employes  of  same,  or  with  the 
powers  of  others,  when  not  furnished  with,  at  least,  stamps 
equivalent  to  the  postage  of  30  grams,  or  when  more  should 
be  paid,  the  difference  between  the  value  of  the  stamps  it 
bears  and  the  amount  it  should  bear  exceeds  the  postage  of 
GO  grams. 

D.  When  official  stamps  are   used   for  correspondence 
•outside  the  cases  for  which  they  are  intended. 

E.  The  objects  comprehended  in  fractions  B.,  C.  auvd  D. 
which  are  not  furnished  with  stamps  corresponding  to  the 
total  value  of  the  postage. 

The  Post-office  always  forwards  correspondence  insuffi- 
ciently provided  with  postage,  thus  taking  into  considera- 
tion the  correspondence  of  private  individuals  which,  having 
stamps  equivalent  to  the  postage  of  15  grams,  should  pay 
more  by  reason  of  its  weight,  and  the  deficiency  does  not 
exceed  the  one  that  corresponds  to  30  grams.  It  also  for- 
wards the  correspondence  of  the  governments  of  the  States 
with  their  functionaries  and  employes,  also  with  those  of 
other  States,  when  having  stamps  to  the  value  of  the  postage 
of  30  grams,  should  pay  more  by  reason  of  its  weight,  and 
the  deficiency  does  not  exceed  the  postage  corresponding  to 
60  grams. 

This  correspondence  is  forwarded  to  its  destination,  but 
at  the  time  of  being  delivered  to  whom  it  may  be  directed, 
this  person  must  place,  in  the  presence  of  the  respective 
employe,  the  stamps  corresponding  to  the  double  amount 
which  has  not  been  paid. 

Postage  stamps  are  the  only  valuables  admitted  in  order 
to  verify  the  postage  of  the  correspondence  and  other 
matter  conveyed  by   the  Postal   Service.     In   the   denomi- 


60  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

nation  of  postal  stamps  is  understood  postal  cards,  the 
card  letters,  and  the  stamped  bonds  and  envelopes. 

The  postage  and  stamped  envelopes  are  of  two  classes, 
one  for  the  use  of  the  public,  and  the  other  for  official 
sei'vice.  The  postal  letters  and  cards  can  be  employed  as 
well  for  international  service  as  for  internal. 

The  stamps  should  be  placed  by  those  interested,  and  in 
no  case  by  the  employes  of  the  administration. 

The  Postal  Code  considers  as  falsifications  of  stamps; 
1st.  Those  who,  without  the  authority  of  the  G©verument, 
print  them  or  assist  in  their  impression.  2d.  Those  who 
knowingly  place  in  circulation  or  keep  false  stamps  in  their 
possession.  3d.  Those  who  alter  the  real  stamps,  with  the 
object  of  issuing  them  for  a  higher  valuation.  4th.  Those 
who  manufacture,  help  to  manufacture,  or  keep  in  their 
possession  dies,  utensils  or  materials  which  have  for  object 
the  falsification  of  stamps. 

The  crime  of  falsification  is  punished  with  imprisonment 
of  from  one  to  three  years,  which  term  is  doubled  in  the  case 
of  a  second  offense,  and  everyone  who  knowingly  Gmplo3's, 
sells,  or  intends  to  sell  stamps  which  have  alread}^  served  for 
postage,  incurs  a  fine  of  $25  to  $100,  or  a  penalty  of  from 
fifteen  days  to  two  months'  imprisonment. 

The  inviolability  of  correspondence  of  private  individuals 
is  trespassed  upon,  by  opening  Avilh  intention  or  malice,  or 
by  destroying  or  abstracting  from  any  office  of  the  service, 
any  closed  piece  of  correspondence  confided  to  the   mails. 

The  crime  of  violating  correspondence  is  punished  in 
particular  with  a  penalty  of  from  one  to  three  years  im- 
prisonment, doubling  the  term  in  case  of  second  offense. 
When  the  violation  of  a  letter  or  any  sealed  packet  has 
for  object  the  a{)propriation  of  any  bank  check,  bill  of 
exchange,  or  of  any  document  contained  in  the  letter,  or 
sheet  of  paper,  or  the  committal  of  any  other  crime,  the 
rules  of  accumulation  are  observed. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  61 


NEW   POSTAL    CODE. 


When  the  new  system  was  adopted,  the  mechanism  of 
dispatch  changed  materially  with  the  inauguration  of  new 
offices  for  the  General  Administration,  with  the  creation  of 
more  than  a  thousand  others  at  convenient  points,  estab- 
lishment of  other  postal  roads,  increase  of  employes  in  the 
existing  offices,  and  with  the  suppression  of  the  categories 
in  the  exterior  administration,  which,  with  the  same  char- 
acter and  attributions,  subordinated  themselves  directly  to 
the  General  Administration. 

In  virtue  of  the  New  Postal  Code,  those  codes  bearing 
upon  the  same  subject  for  the  State  governments  were 
suppressed  for  the  circulation  of  their  official  correspond- 
ence, and  the  previous  and  obligatory  postage,  the  free  sale 
of  stamps,  the  postal  card  system,  the  uniformity  of 
internal  postage,  etc.,  etc.,  were  established. 

The  tariif  formerly  in  force  for  the  internal  service,  which 
had  for  base  twenty  five-cents  postage  for  each  half  ounce  of 
weight  in  one  letter,  was  reduced  to  ten  cents  for  each  fifteen 
arams  or  fraction  thereof.  Five  cents  was  fixed  for  the 
value  of  the  stamps  of  the  postal  cards  to  any  distance, 
and  two  cents  for  the  circulation  of  same  in  the  Urban 
Service.  The  official  correspondence  of  the  States  under- 
went, since  the  1st  of  October,  1885,  a  reduction  of  postage, 
which  is  now  at  three  cents  for  each  letter  weighing  up  to 

five  grams. 

The  publication  of  periodicals  of  second-class  matter 
taking  place  in  Mexico,  and  the  foreign  ones  of  like  char- 
acter, pay  four  cents  each  480  grams  or  fraction  of  that 
weio-ht.  Pamphlets  and  other  articles  of  third-class  mat- 
ter, as  also  those  of  the  second  which  are  not  forwarded 
by  the  publishers  or  their  agents,  pay  one  cent  for  each 
thirty  grams  or  fraction  thereof,  and  articles  of  fourth-class 
pay  two  cents  for  the  same  weight. 


62  THI-:    KICHKS    OF    MEXICO 

As  to  the  countries  which  are  not  comprised  in  the  [Jni- 
versal  Postal  Union,  the  price  of  postage  of  the  corre- 
.spondence  and  articles  is  double  the  appointed  one  for  the 
internal  service,  and  paid  for  by  the  person  to  whom  the 
letters  or  articles  are  directed.  In  respect  to  these  coun- 
tries the  registry  system  is  not  admitted. 

By  the  Circular  of  Decemher  31st,  of  the  same 
year,  the  circulation  of  elementary  books  and  all  classes 
of  scientific  and  literaiy  publications  was  facilitated,  the 
postage  being  reduced  for  these  articles  to  one  cent  for 
each  thirty  grams'  weight  which  is  now  paid.  The  reform 
was  introduced  that  not  only  the  written  correspondence, 
but  pamphlets,  samples  of  merchandise,  and,  in  general 
all  articles  conveyable  by  the  Postal  Service,  can  be  regis- 
tered, paying  for  this  right  twenty-five  cents  for  each  letter 
or  parcels  without  prejudice  to  classifying  each  article 
according  to  its  class  and  paying  the  price  of  postage  that 
corresponds  to  it  in  conformity  with  the  tariff.  The 
registry  fee  is  paid  by  means  of  postal  stamps,  which  the 
interested  party  himself  must  affix  to  the  letter  or  article 
sent. 

Since  the  27th  of  November,  1885,  the  postage  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Northern  Boundaries  has  been  reduced 
to  the  rate  of  foreign  correspondence  which  is  five  cents  for 
each  fifteen  grains  or  fraction  thereof,  in  conformity 
with  the  Postal  Convention,  and  in  order  to  avoid  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  towns  on  the  Mexican  1)order  should  post 
their  letters  in  the  United  States,  with  the  object  of  saving 
100  per  cent  in  the  postage. 

By  the  decree  of  May  31st,  1885,  the  ten  inspectors  of 
Zones,  created  by  the  Postal  Code,  were  su[)pre£sed,  and  four 
were  created  for  the  pul)lic  servi(;e,  whose  attributions  are 
determined  l)y  the  law  of  the  2.sth  of  Ai)ril  of  the  same 
year. 

The    Urban   Postal  Service,  inaugurated  on  the    5lh  of 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  63 

March,  1885,  in  the  city  of  Mexico  and  in  the  outside 
towns  of  the  Federal  District,  extended  finally  to  sixty-four 
of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Republic. 

ECONOMIC    REGULATIONS. 

TAe  Postal  Administration  of  the  Federal  District  pub- 
lished the  following  on  the  30th  of  December,  1892 :  — 

The  offices  of  registration  shall  be  open  to  the  public 
from  8  in  the  morning  to  8  at  night,  both  in  this  admin- 
istration and  in  the  branches  of  the  city,  but  the  post 
boxes  are  closed  at  the  following  hours :  For  corre- 
spondence both  inland  and  foreign  sent  by  the  National 
Mexican  Railway  and  by  the  Mexico  to  JSfuevo  Laredo 
Route:  In  this  office  at  11  a.  m.  In  the  branch  offices  at 
10  a.  m. 

For  correspondence  sent  by  the  afternoon  posts  to  the 
States  of  Puehla^  Oaxaca  and  Chiapas,  Hidalgo  and 
Mexico  by  the  local  trains  of  the  different  railways :  In 
this  office  at  1  p.  m.     In  the  branch  offices  at  12  p.  m. 

For  correspondence  sent  to  the  States  of  the  Interior, 
West  and  North,  by  the  Mexican  Central  Railway  as  well 
as  to  the  following  States  and  Territories  of  the  American 
Union:  California,  New  Mexico,  Washington,  Wyoming, 
Idaho,  Montana,  Oregon,  Nevada,  Utah,  Colorado  and 
Arizona  and  places  in  the  east  of  Texas :  In  this  office  at 
5  p.  m.     In  the  branch  offices  at  4  p.  m. 

For  correspondence  sent  to  the  points  at  which  the  Cen- 
tral Railway  touches  between  Mexico  and  Leon,  and  for 
the  States  of  Michoacan,  Mexico,  Guerrero,  Morelos, 
Hidalgo,  Puebla,  Oaxaca,  Chiapas,  Veracruz,  Tabasco, 
Campeche  and  Yucatan  and  for  Cuba :  In  this  office  at  8 
p.m.     In  the  branch  offices  at  7  p.  m. 

It  is  requested  that  persons,  who  have  to  register  their 
correspondence,  will  at  once  communicate  to   the  admiuis- 


64  THE    KICHES    OF    MEXICO 

trator  any  difficulty,  delay  or  obstacle  they  meet  with, 
whether  in  the  respective  departments  of  this  office,  in  the 
city  branches  or  in  those  outside  the  Federal  District. 
Claims  for  the  acknowledgment  of  receipts  can  only  be 
made  in  the  respective  offices  of  this  administration 
between  8  a.  m.  and  8  p.  m. 


UNIVERSAL  POSTAL  UNION. 

III.  A  most  important  reform  tending  to  extend  the  in- 
ternational communications  of  Mexico  was  undoubtedly  its 
adhesion  to  the  postal  treaty  of  Berne  which  was  approved 
of  by  representatives  of  twenty-one  countries  on  the  9th  of 
October,  1874.  The  government,  being  invited  to  send  a 
representative  to  the  Congress  of  the  Postal  Union  which 
would  be  held  in  Paris  in  accordance  with  article  28  of  that 
convention,  appointed  Mr.  Gabino  Barreda,  Mexican  Min- 
ister in  Germany,  as  its  representative,  empowering  him  to 
enter  into  the  agreement  in  conformity  with  the  instruc- 
tions which  were  at  the  same  time  sent  to  him. 

On  the  1st  of  June,  1878,  Mr.  Barreda  signed  the  postal 
ao^roement  of  the  same  date  and  which  was  approved  of  bv 
the  Senate  and  published  on  the  10th  of  December  of  the 
same  year. 

By  virtue  of  this  arrangement,  the  different  nations  that 
were  represented,  form  under  the  name  of  the  Universal 
Postal  Union,h\\^  one  single  territory  for  the  exchange  of  arti- 
cles which  the  postal  traffic  places  in  their  post-offices.  They 
number  the  opened  or  closed  letters,  post-cards,  prints  of 
whatever  kind,  documents  (papicrs  d'affaires)  and  samples  of 
merchandise,  whilst  the  nations  which  supi)ly  the  transport 
service  for  the  correspondence  must  be  paid  the  following 
expenses  of  transit :  for  land  transport  2  francs  per  kilo- 
gram of  letters  or  post-cards  and  25  centimes  per  kilogram 
of  other  articles;  for  sea  transport  of  more  than  three  hun- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  65 

dred  miles  15  francs  per  kilogram  of  letters  or  post-cards 
and  1  franc  per  kilogram  of  other  articles.  In  cases  where 
the  sea  transport  belongs  to  two  or  more  nations  the  ex- 
pense may  be  more  than  15  francs  per  kilogram  of  letters 
and  this  duty  is  divided  among  the  nations  interested.  The 
expenses  of  transit  are  borne  by  the  remitting  nation.  The 
prices  for  the  carriage  of  articles  by  post  are  fixed  as  fol- 
lows :  for  letters  25  centimes  if  prepaid,  if  not  double,  for 
each  letter  weighing  15  grammes  or  a  fraction  of  15 
grammes  ;  10  centimes  for  a  post  card ;  5  centimes  for  every 
object  or  packet  of  printed  matter,  documents,  and  samples 
of  merchandise,  not  exceeding  50  grammes.  The  lowest 
cost  of  documents  is  25  centimes  per  packet,  and  that  of 
samples  10  centimes.  To  these  charges  may  be  added 
a  further  charge  of  25  centimes  for  letters,  5  centimes  for 
post -cards  and  the  same  amount  for  other  objects  whose 
weight  is  5  grammes  or  less,  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  sea- 
transit. 

In  case  of  insufficient  prepaid  postage  the  deficit  is  paid 
by  the  persons  to  whom  the  articles  are  sent  and  Avith 
double  the  amount  of  the  insufficiency.  Articles  which  by 
their  natures  soil  or  injure  the  other  correspondence  are  not 
transmitted  ;  nor  samples  which  have  a  merchantable  value, 
or  exceed  250  grammes  in  weight  or  are  more  than  20 
centimetres  long,  10  wide  and  5  thick ;  nor  documents  and 
printed  matter  of  any  kind  weighing  more  than  2  kilograms  ; 
nor  articles,  with  the  exception  of  letters,  which  have  not 
been  prepaid  at  least  in  part. 

For  registered  letters  there  must  be  paid  in  addition 
to  the  ordinary  postage,  25  centimes  in  European  States 
and  50  in  other  countries  and  these  imply  the  handing  of  a 
receipt  to  the  remitter  and  if  25  centimes  more  are  paid, 
the  postal  authorities  are  obliged  to  give  a  receipt  signed  by 
the  person  to  whom  the  article  was  delivered.  In  the  case 
of  the  loss  of  an  article  which  was  registered  there  must  be 

5 


66  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

paid  to  the  remitter  or  at  his  request  to  the  person  to  whom 
the  article  was  sent  an  iiKlenmity  of  50  francs  b}'  the  postal 
authorities  in  whose  territory  or  in  whose  sea  service  the 
article  went  astray,  and  if  it  be  impossible  to  find  out  which 
is  the  responsible  office,  the  indemnity  must  be  paid  in 
equal  parts  by  both  nations.  Every  claim  and  indemnity 
lai)se3  after  one  year  reckoned  from  the  delivery  of  the 
registered  article  in  the  post-office.  In  countries  where  the 
franc  is  not  the  monetary  unit  the  postage  is  fixed  according 
to  equivalent  values  laid  down  in  article  14  of  the  regulations 
of  order  and  details  in  which  it  is  determined  that  in  Mexico 
6,  4  and  2  cents  are  equivalent  to  25,  10  and  5  centimes 
respectively. 

The  postage  of  any  article  sent  should  be  paid  by  means 
of  postage  stamps  available  in  the  country  from  which  the 
object  is  sent  for  the  correspondence  of  private  persons. 
The  official  correspondence  which  relates  to  the  postal 
service  which  is  exchanged  between  the  postal  authorities 
is  excepted. 

The  money  collected  for  postage  belongs  to  the  country 
which  collects  it :  the  return  of  things  from  the  post-office 
brings  with  it  no  expense  for  the  persons  to  whom  they  are 
returned. 

The  sending  of  letters  or  packets  containing  gold  or 
silver,  coin,  jewelry  and  precious  articles  and  objects  which 
are  subject  to  duty  is  forbidden.  The  time  fixed  for  the 
agreement  to  be  put  in  execution  was  the  1st  of  April,  1879, 
without  definite  limit,  each  of  the  signing  parties  being 
able  to  withdraw  from  the  union  on  giving  one  year's 
notice. 

POSTAL    CONGRESS    OF    LISBON. 

During  the  months  of  February  and  March,  1885,  the  first 
postal  Congress  met  at  Li.-bon  in  fultilhncnt  of  astipuhition 
in  the  previous  agreement.   Sr.   I).    Luis  Bretony    Nedra, 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  67 

consul  of  the  Republic  in  that  city,  was  charged  with  the 
representation  of  Mexico.  The  clauses  added  to  the  Postal 
Convention  of  Paris  were  approved  of  by  the  Senate  on 
the  27th  of  May,  1886.  These  clauses  contain  important 
reforms  and  additions.  The  free  transit  of  double  post- 
cards with  answer  prepaid  was  extended  throughout  the 
whole  union,  commencing  on  the  1st  of  April,  1886,  the 
postage  of  each  of  the  two  parts  which  make  up  the  post- 
cards being  10  centimes  of  a  franc  ;  the  statements  of  the 
accounts  of  transit  between  the  countries  which  form  the 
union  are  made  instead  of  every  two  years  once  in  every 
three  years,  taking  as  their  basis  the  number  and  weight 
of  the  objects  transmitted  in  twenty-eight  days  instead  of 
one  month  ;  extra  postage  is  no  longer  charged  for  trans- 
mitting answer,  post-cards  which  are  cut  off  from  the  double 
post-cards  and  the  postage  of  post-cards  having  the  answer 
prepaid  is  twenty  centimes  for  the  two  halves  ;  it  is  not 
allowable  to  send  packets  of  papers  or  printed  documents 
of  any  class  whose  weight  exceeds  two  kilograms  or  when 
any  of  their  sides  measure  more  than  45  centimetres;  the 
remitter  can  have  an  object  withdrawn  from  the  service 
or  its  directions  altered  as  long  as  it  has  not  been  de- 
livered to  the  person  to  whom  it  is  sent,  by  paying  the 
neccessary  expenses  at  the  time  he  asks  for  its  deten- 
tion either  by  post  or  telegraph.  The  detention  is 
not  obligatory  in  countries  where  the  legislature  does  not 
allow  the  sender  to  dispose  of  an  article  during  its  journey. 
Articles  sent  by  post  may  be  delivered  at  the  house  of  the 
receiver  by  a  special  employe  when  the  sender  so  requests 
and  pays  30  centimes ;  articles  so  sent  are  described  as 
"express."  The  dispatch  of  documents  of  identity  is 
established  by  virtue  of  a  special  treaty  between  the 
Argentine  Republic,  Bulgaria,  Egypt,  Italy,  Luxemburg, 
Mexico,  Paraguay,  Portugal,  Roumania,  Switzerland, 
Uruguay  and  Venezuala.     The  object  of  these  memoranda 


68  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

is  to  enable  foreigaers  to  obtain  without  delay  their  regis- 
tered correspondence  at  any  office  in  the  countries  mentioned 
without  being  obliged  to  undergo  in  each  case  the  formali- 
ties which  are  required  to  establish  the  identity  of  a  person 
in  the  post-offices.  The  sending  of  articles  of  gold  and 
silver,  precious  stones  and  other  valual)le  objects,  is  author- 
ized whenever  the  posting  or  sending  is  not  forbidden  by 
the  laws  of  the  country  from  which  they  are  sent,  through 
which  they  pass  or  for  which  they  are  destined.  It  was 
also  definitely  settled  at  the  Congress  of  Lisbon  that  the 
values  fixed  for  Mexico  of  6,  4  and  2  cents  as  equiva- 
lent to  25,  10  and  5  centimes  should  be  lowered  to  5,  2  and 
1  cent  and  the  new  scale  of  postage  for  foreign  countries 
was  issued  on  the  24th  of  September,  1885. 

POSTAL    CONVENTIONS. 

United  Slates 

rV.  The  notable  increase  which  is  every  day  seen  in  the 
foreign  postal  service  and  the  continually  increasing  activity 
of  correspondence  with  the  United  States  especially,  owing 
to  the  facility  and  frequency  of  communication  with  that 
country,  has  rendered  the  making  of  new  postal  agreements 
absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  extend  the  service  between 
the  two  nations,  because  the  agreement  entered  into  in  1861 
and  known  as  '♦  Corwin  Lerdo  "  did  not  offer  to  Mexico 
the  advantages  which  were  to  be  desired.  With  this  object, 
on  the  4th  of  April,  1887,  a  postal  agreement  was  entered 
into  with  the  U  nitod  States  through  Mr.  Romero,  Mexican 
Minister  at  Washington.  This  arrangement  facilitates  the 
interchange  of  correspondence,  printed  matter,  samples 
and  i)ackages  of  certain  sizes,  total  prepayment  of  all  cor- 
respondence being  obligatory  with  the  exception  of  letters. 
The  Secretaries  of  Government  of  the  Exchc(iuer  issued 
their  respective  regulations  on  the  lUth  and  11th  of  August 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  69 

of  the  same  year.  The  first  was  amplified  in  November 
and  the  second  was  abolished  by  the  regulations  of  Sep- 
tember, 1887,  and  then  both  came  into  force  on  the  1st  of 
January,  1888. 

Another  agreement  was  signed  at  Washington,  on  the 
28th  of  April,  1888,  the  object  of  which  was  to  render  more 
efiicient  the  parcel-post  service  and  in  it  the  irresponsibility 
of  both  post-office  departments  for  loss  or  damage  to  parcels 
was  declared.  The  agreement  came  into  force  from  the 
1st  of  August  following.  In  order  that  the  treaty  might 
be  carried  out  the  Secretary  of  the  Exchequed  issued  regu- 
lations of  the  30th  of  December,  1888,  and  the  Secretary 
of  Interior  a  decisive  rule  on  the  29th  of  the  same  month 
and  year  for  the  carrying  out  of  this  and  the  previous 
agreement  of  1887. 

On  the  24th  of  January,  1889,  another  agreement  was 
signed  at  Washington  by  which  was  organized  with  the 
greatest  possible  safety  a  rapid  system  for  the  interchange 
of  mails,  meant  exclusively  for  the  direct  service  of  regis- 
tered correspondence  between  Mexico  and  New  York.  The 
1st  mail-bags  were  despatched  from  both  cities  on  the  15th 
of  February,  and  since  then  they  are  being-  received  at 
both  ends  respectively  every  fifth  day  from  their  despatch. 

French  Republic. 

Another  agreement  was  entered  into  on  the  10th  of  De- 
cember, 1891,  regarding  the  interchange  of  parcels  without 
declared  value  and  on  the  basis  of  the  Paris  Convention  of 
the  3d  of  November,  1880,  between  the  Kepublics  of 
Mexico  and  France.  This  agreement  was  made  through 
Messieurs  Mariscal,  Foreign  Secretary,  and  Albert  Henri 
Blanchard  de  Fargas,  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Plenipo- 
tentiary Minister  of  the  French  Republic  in  Mexico. 

The  agreement  will  be  obligatory  till  such  time  as  one 


70  THE    KICIIES    OF    MEXICO 

of  the  two  nations  shall  give  a  year's  notice  to  the  other 
of  its  intention  to  allow  it  to  become  extinct.  The  Senate 
approved  this  Convention  on  the  12th  of  December,  the 
President  si<rned  it  on  the  14th  of  the  same  and  it  was 
promulgated  on  the  27th  of  June,  1892. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

A  treaty  of  the  same  kind  regarding  the  carriage  of  par- 
cels between  the  Republic  and  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  made  in  Mexico  by  Mr. 
Mariscal,  foreign  minister,  and  the  British  minister,  Sir 
Spenser  St.  John,  on  the  15th  of  February,  1889.  The 
regulations  for  its  being  carried  out  were  issued  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  on  the  12th  of  March,  1890. 

German  Empire. 

On  the  24th  of  May,  1892,  an  agreement  was  signed  by 
Messieurs  Mariscal,  foreign  Secretary,  and  Von  Winckler, 
Envoy,  Extraordinary  and  Plenipotentiary  minister  of  the 
German  Empire.  By  this  there  was  established  between 
the  two  nations  a  regular  postal  service  for  parcels  without 
declared  valae  and  the  value  of  whose  contents  cannot  be 
claimed  on  delivery.  This  agreement  after  being  approved 
of  by  the  Senate  on  the  30th  of  the  said  month  was  ratified 
on  the  27th  of  the  following  June. 

MAIL    STEAMERS. 

V.  The  (iovcrnment,  in  order  to  stimulate  commerce  to 
create  regular  communications  between  Mexico  and  foreign 
countries,  as  well  as  to  facilitate  intercourse  between  the 
cities  and  ports  on  her  coast,  has  favored  the  establishment 
of  mail  steamers  by  granting  to  the  companies  concessions 
of  subventions  more  or  loss  large  taking  into  account  the 
necessities  of  the  public  service. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  71 

The  contracts  which  have  lately  been  made  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Interior  and  of  Communications  as  of  Public 
Works  are  the  following : 

Imperial  German  Mail  Harrison  Line. 

A  contract,  dated  the  12th  of  February,  1887,  with  Mr. 
Carlos  G.  Martens  representing  Messieurs  Guillermo  Bus- 
ing &  Co.,  of  Veracruz  to  carry  free  of  charge  for  the 
government,  all  the  public  and  official  correspondence, 
printed  matter  and  parcels  directed  to  Europe  by  the 
steamers  of  the  "Imperial  German  Mail,"  and  the  English 
correspondence  by  those  of  the  "  Harrison  Line." 

The  first  line  runs  every  month  between  Hamburg  and 
Havre,  Veracruz,  Tampico  and  Progreso,  and  vice  versa  ; 
the  second  runs  every  month  between  the  ports  of  Liver- 
pool and  Veracruz  and  is  allowed  to  touch  at  any  of  the 
ports  of  Tampico,  Tuxpan,  Frontera  and  Progreso  both 
out  and  home.  The  steamers  of  both  lines  carry  under  the 
same  conditions  the  correspondence  from  one  to  the  other 
of  the  Mexican  ports  at  which  they  touch  and  are  excepted 
from  the  payment  of  lighthouse  dues.  This  contract  was 
made  for  two  years  and  it  was  prolonged  under  the  same 
conditions  on  the  12th  of  Februaiy,  1889,  for  three  more 
years  to  conclude  on  the  1st  of  March,  1892. 

Keio  Yoi'k  and  Cuba  Mail  Steam  Ship  Company. 

A  contract  dated  the  5th  of  December,  1889,  with  Mr. 
Robert  W.  Parson  in  his  own  name  and  that  of  the  New 
York  and  Cuba  Mail  Steam  Ship  Company,  to  perform 
between  the  ports  of  the  line  a  like  service  to  that  expressed 
in  the  previous  contract.  The  steamers  of  the  company 
sail  every  week  between  New  York  and  Veracruz,  touching 
at  Havana  and  Progreso  and  alternately  at  Tampico  by 
Tuxpan  or  Campeche  and  Frontera.     They  are  exempted 


72  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

from  the  payment  of  lighthouse  duties  and  may  engage  in 
the  coasting  trade  provided  there  are  no  national  vessels 
enchased  in  the  same.  The  contract  was  made  for  five 
years. 

General  French  Company  of  iSteam  Transports. 

A  contract  signed  on  the  10th  of  January,  1891,  with 
Messrs.  F.  J.  Munos  &  Co.,  agents  in  Veracruz  for  the 
General  French  Company  of  Steam  Transports  to  perform 
a  service  like  to  that  stipulated  for  in  the  previous.  The 
steamers  of  this  company  make  their  voyages  every  month 
from  Antwerp  to  Veracruz  touching  now  and  then  the  ports 
of  Bordeaux,  Havana  and  Progreso,  and  from  Veracruz 
to  Antwerp  touching  at  Tampico,  New  Orleans  and  Havre. 
In  this  contract  are  also  included  the  irregular  steamers  of 
the  same  company  as  well  as  those  placed  at  the  di.s[)osal 
of  the  service  either  to  increase  the  number  of  monthly 
voyages  or  the  number  of  ports.  As  compensation  for  this 
service  the  steamers  are  excepted  from  custom  duties.  The 
contract  will  last  for  three  years  and  may  be  prolonged  at 
the  will  of  the  parties. 

General  Transatlantic  Company. 

* 

A  contract  made  by  the  same  Secretaryship  with  Mr. 
Eugenio  Dutom,  general  agent  of  the  above  company,  on 
the  20th  of  August,  1891,  stipulates  that  it  continues  to 
perform  the  service  of  carrying  correspondence  between  the 
ports  at  which  its  steamers  touch  in  accordance  with  the 
asreement  made  with  the  French  Government,  and  more- 
over  that  it  shall  perform  between  the  same  ports  the 
postal  service  laid  down  in  the  previous  contract.  There 
are  included  in  this  contract  the  steamers  which  make 
monthly  all  round  voyages,  the  irregular  ones  of  the  same 
company  and   those  i)laccd  at  its  service,  all  of  which  are 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  73 

exempted  from  the  p:i3anent  of  lighthouse  dues.  This 
contract  is  made  for  3  years  and  may  be  prolonged  at  the 
will  of  the  contracting  parties. 

West  Indian  and  Pacific  Steam  Ship  Company. 

A  contract  dated  the  25th  of  November,  1891,  and  en- 
tered into  by  the  said  Secretaryship  of  Communications 
and  the  above  company  represented  by  Mr.  Juan  Eitter  to 
undertake  a  like  service  has  been  already  expressed  in.  the 
previous  contracts.  The  steamers  run  every  twenty-eight 
days  between  the  ports  of  Liverpool  and  Veracruz,  touching 
also  at  Barbadoes,  St.  Thomas,  Trinidad,  La  Guayra, 
Puerto  Cabello,  Curazao,  Sta.  Marta,  Savanilla,  Cartagena, 
Port-au-Prince,  Kingston,  Colan,  Tampico  and  New  Or- 
leans ;  they  may  also  call  at  the  port  of  Progreso  both  on 
their  out  and  home  voyage.  The  contract  is  for  three 
years,  which  may  be  prolonged.  The  steamers  are  free 
from  the  payment  of  light-house  dues. 

Transatlantic  Steam  Shij?  Company  of  Barcelona. 

A  contract  made  on  the  11th  of  September,  1891,  by  the 
same  Secretaryship  with  Mr.  Carlos  Calderon  and  Vasco, 
representative  of  the  above-mentioned  company,  for  the 
service  of  the  public  and  official  correspondence,  placed 
under  its  charge  the  ports  of  the  Mexican  Gulf  at  which 
the  steamers  may  touch.  The  said  steamers  are  exempted 
from  paying  light-house  dues  and  may  engage  in  the  coast- 
ing trade  if  there  be  no  national  boats  engaged  therein. 

Harrison  Steam  ShijJ  Line^  called  "  The  Charente  Steam- 
ship, Limited. ^^ 

A  contract  entered  into  on  the  8th  of  March,  1892,  by 
the  Secretaryship  of  Communications  and  Mr.  Carlos  G. 


74  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

Marten  repi-osontative  of  the  said  company  for  the  trans- 
port of  mails  between  Mexico  and  Europe,  is  on  the  same 
conditions  as  the  preceding  contract.  The  steamers  sail 
every  eight  days  between  the  ports  of  Liverpool  and  Vera- 
cruz, touchins:  both  on  their  outward  and  return  vovases 
at  Tampico,  Tuxpan,  Fiontera,  Campeche  and  Progreso  as 
well  as  at  Barbadoes,  St.  Thomas,  Trinidad,  La  Guayra, 
Puerto  Cabello,  Curazao,  Santa  Marta,  Savanilla,  Carta- 
gena, Port-au-Prince,  Kingston,  Colon  and  New  Orleans. 
These  steamers  must  make  at  least  one  voyage  every 
month.  They  are  freed  from  the  payment  of  lighthouse 
dues  and  may  engage  in  the  coasting  trade.  The  contract 
lasts  for  three  years. 

New  York^  Mobile  and  Mexico  Steamship  Company. 

A  contract  made  between  the  Minister  of  Communications 
and  Mr.  Emeterio  de  la  Garza  representing  the  said  com- 
pany on  the  22d  of  April,  1892,  for  the  carrying  of  mails 
on  the  same  terms  as  are  stipulated  for  in  previously 
mentioned  contracts.  These  vessels  sail  every  28  days 
between  Mobile  and  Tampico  and  are  exempted  from  paying 
lighthouse  duties. 

Line  of  Steamers  between  Progreso,  New  Orleans  and  Neio 

York. 

A  contract  dated  the  22d  of  April,  1892,  entered  into  by 
the  Secretaryship  of  Communications  and  Mr.  Manuel 
Peniche,  representative  of  Mr.  P.  Gonzalez,  agent  of  the 
said  line  for  the  transport  of  mails.  The  steamers  under- 
take the  [)ostal  service  on  their  voyages  from  Progreso  to 
New  York  and  from  Progreso  to  New  Orleans  as  well  as  in 
the  irregular  voyages  which  they  make  from  Boston  to 
Proirreso  and  from  Progreso  to  Veracruz.     Those  steamers 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  75 

are  bound  to  make  at  least  one  voyage  every  month ;  they 
do  not   pay   lighthouse  dues.     The  contract  is  for  three 

years. 

Line  of  Mr.  Joaquin  Redo. 

A  contract  entered  into  on  the  1st  of  August,  1888,  with 
Mr.  Joaquin  Kedo,  for  running  one  or  two  mail  steamers 
between  San  Francisco  and  Guaymas,  touching  on  their 
outward  and  return  voyages  at  San  Diego,  Ensenada  de 
Todos  Santos,  Magdalena  Bay,  Cape  San  Lucas  (higher), 
Mazatlan  and  La  Paz ;  each  voyage  not  to  be  of  more 
than  one  month's  duration.  The  subventioned  line  carries 
gratuitously  the  mails  and  packets  of  printing  matter  sent 
by  the  post-office  to  the  ports  or  from  the  ports  at  which 
the  line  touches ;  it  also  carries  at  reduced  rates  packages 
containing  articles  of  the  Federal  Government,  troops  or 
army  men  who  are  traveling  on  service,  citizens  or  foreign 
subjects  who  are  notoriously  poor  and  wish  to  come  to  the 
Republic,  and  Mexican  citizens  who  wish  to  return  to  Mex- 
ico from  abroad.  In  return  for  these  services  a  subven- 
tion of  $2,700  is  given  for  the  voyage  and  return.  The 
capital  of  the  line  is  not  subject  to  the  payment  of  Federal 
taxes ;  the  vessels  do  not  pay  any  port  dues  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  pilot's  fee  and  may  engage  in  the  coasting  trade 
at  the  various  points  in  their  journeys.  This  contract  is 
made  for  ten  years. 

Steam  Shij)   Company  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

On  the  12th  of  August,  1891,  the  Secretaryship  of  Com- 
munications and  Public  Works  made  another  contract  with 
this  company  in  which  it  was  stipulated  that  the  company 
should  run  a  mail  boat  between  Sun  Francisco,  California, 
and  Guaymas,  touching  in  its  outward  and  return  voyage 
at  the  ports  of  Ensenada  de  Todos  Santos,  Magdalena  Bay, 
San  Jose  del  Cabo,  Mazatlan  and  La  Paz.     It  performs  a 


76  THE    RICHES   OF   MEXICO 

like  service  to  that  stated  in  the  foregoing  contract .  The 
mail  boat  in  exchange  pays  no  lighthouse  clues  and  may 
engage  in  the  coasting  trade  at  the  different  ports  of  its 
voyage.  The  company  is  also  empowered  to  open  a  regis- 
ter for  the  vessels  one  day  before  that  appointed  for  its 
sailing  and  its  capital  is  exempted  from  the  payment  of  Fed- 
eral taxes,  with  the  exception  of  the  stamp  duty.  The 
length  of  each  voyage  and  return  shall  not  exceed  one 
month.  The  contract  is  for  five  years,  which  may  be  pro- 
longed at  the  desire  of  the  parties  to  it. 

Line  of  Steamers  of  Mr.  James  W.  Porch. 

Similar  conditions  to  those  of  the  preceding  contract 
were  arranged  on  the  12th  of  August,  1891,  between  the 
Minister  of  Communications  and  Mr.  James  W.  Porch,  for 
the  establishment  of  a  line  of  steamers  to  run  between  the 
ports  of  Philadelphia  to  Baltimore  and  Veracruz  touching 
on  their  outward  and  home  voyage  at  the  ports  of  Pro- 
greso,  Frontera,  Campeche,  Tuxpan  and  Tampico,  and  other 
ports  of  Mexico  or  the  United  States  when  the  traffic  so 
require.  The  company's  steamers  shall  run  at  least  once 
every  month  between  the  said  ports.  The  contract  will  last 
for  five  years  and  may  then  be  prolonged  for  five  more. 

Line  of  Mr.  Robert   R.   Symon. 

Mr.  Sebastian  Camacho  as  representative  of  Mr.  Robert 
R.  SN'mon  signed,  along  with  the  same  Secretaryship  and 
on  the  15th  of  October,  1891,  a  contract  reforming  that  of 
the  previous  25th  of  June.  By  this  agreement  the  steam- 
ships *' Mazatlan  "  and  "  Altata  "  are  to  sail  from  Man- 
zanillo  to  GuaymaS:  touching  at  these  ports  on  each  voyage. 
These  steamers  undertake  the  carriage  of  the  mails  and  of 
other  things  as  per  previous  contract.  They  engage  in  the 
seaport  and   the  coa-tinir  trade  and  do  not  )");iy  light  house 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  77 

dues  nor  are  they  subject  to  the  payment  of  Federal  taxes 
except  the  stamp  duty.     This  contract  is  for  four  years. 

Line  of  Mr.  jSIanuel  Romero  combined  with  the  Steamers 
of  the  Spanish  Transatlantic  Company. 

A  contract  of  the  21st  of  August,  1889,  entered  into  with 
Mr.  Manuel  Romero  for  the  establishment  of  two  steamers 
each  running  an  all  round  voyage  every  twenty  or  twenty- 
five  days  between  the  ports  of  Tuxpan,  Veracruz,  Coatza- 
coalcos,  Minatitlan,  and  Frontera  and  being  able  to  arrive 
at  San  Juan  Bautista  de  Tabasco,  Laguna,  Campeche,  Pro- 
greso  and  Tampico  in  time  to  meet  the  steamers  of  the 
Spanish  Transatlantic  Company  which  communicate  every 
ten  days  with  the  pilots  of  Veracruz  and  Progreso. 

Under  the  conditions  of  the  contract  just  mentioned  it 
carried  the  mails  as  well  as  the  government  servants  and 
o-overnment  articles.  The  company  receives  a  subvention 
of  a  thousand  dollars  after  each  voyage.  The  contract  is 
for  five  years  which  may  be  prolonged  to  another  five  years 
and  so  on  if  notice  of  renunciation  be  not  given  before  the 
end  of  the  fourth  year  of  each  period. 

Pacific  Mail   Company. 

A  contract  dated  the  11th  of  December,  1889,  with  Mr. 
Juan  B.  Frisbie,  representative  of  the  Pacific  Mail.  This 
contract  was  a  prolongation  till  the  31st  of  December,  1891, 
of  a  previous  one  drawn  up  on  the  20th  of  December,  1887. 
The  steamers  of  the  company  are  obliged  to  continue 
making  two  voyages  every  month  with  the  line  called 
"  Direct  between  San  Francisco  and  Panama  touching  on 
their  out  and  home  journeys  at  the  ports  of  Mazatlan  and 
Acapulco  and  at  those  of  Manzanillo  and  San  Bias,  once  at 
least  every  month  when  outward  bound  and  again  once 
when   homeward    bound.     The    same    company  shall  also- 


78  TJIK    K I  CUES    OF    MKXICO 

make  with  the  line  called  "  Oriental  "  au  all  round  voyage 
every  month  calling  both  when  going  and  coming  at  the 
ports  of  Acapuico,  Salina  Cruz,  San  Benito,  Puerto  Angel 
and  Tonala.  They  perform  the  postal  service  gratuitously 
and  other  transports  with  the  same  allowance  as  is  stipu- 
lated for  in  the  foregoing  contract.  The  vessels  may  engage 
in  the  coasting  trade  if  there  are  no  national  boats  so 
doino-.  The  company'  used  to  receive  a  subvention  of  2,500 
dollars  monthly  ;  but  when  the  contract  was  provisionall}' 
prolonged  and  for  an  indefinite  time  from  the  1st  of  Jan- 
uary, 1892,  the  subvention  was  withdrawn, 

Mexican  Company  of  Navigation  on  the  River  Grijalva. 

The  Secretaryship  of  Communications  and  Public  Works 
made  a  contract  on  the  11th  of  August,  1891,  with  Mr. 
Charles  Wehener  for  the  establishment  of  lines  of  navi- 
gation on  the  river  Grijalva  between  "  Atasta  "  and 
*'Palmas  "  by  a  company  to  be  called  the  "  ]\Iexican  Com- 
pany of  Navigation  on  the  river  Grijalva."  They  can 
make  the  journey  from  Atasta  to  Barra  de  Chiltepec  by  the 
river  Gonzalez.  Between  the  two  first  mentioned  points 
they  must  run  at  least  six  voyages  per  month  and  between 
the  first  and  last  the  number  of  runs  shall  be  determined  by 
the  company  with  the  approbation  of  the  government. 

The  company  undertakes  to  carry  gratuitously  the  mails 
and  postal  parcels  which  are  delivered  to  them  by  the  post 
offices  and  also  to  perform  the  postal  service  between 
"Atasta"  and  "Las  Palmas  "  either  b}^  means  of  a 
special  mail  boat  when  the  ordinary  boat  is  unavailable  or 
by  means  of  a  post  horse.  It  will  also  carry  with  a 
reduction  of  a  third  i)art  of  the  fare  laid  down  in  its  list,  civil 
and  military  employes  in  the  service  of  the  governnu-nt, 
armed  forces,  war  material,  colonists  who  are  passing  from 
one  point  on  the  line  to  another  along  with  their  luggage. 


mh. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  79 

The  company  enjoys  a  subvention  of  $5,400,  equal  to  $75 
per  all,  round  voyage.  The  term  of  the  contract  is  five 
years. 

Company   of  Navigation  on  the  Rivers  of  Sotavento  of 

Veracruz. 

By  virtue  of  another  contract  made  on  the  3d  of  December, 
iy91,  with  the  Secretaryship  of  Communications,  Messrs. 
Juan  A.  Chazaro,  Sucesores,  engage  to  establish  lines  of 
navigation  on  the  rivers  Papaloapan,  San  Juan  IMichapan 
and  Alonso  Lazaro  between  Tlacotalpan  and  Tuxtepec,  and 
between  Tlacotalpan  and  Alonzo  Lazaro,  and  to  organize  a 
company  called  the  "Company  of  Navigation  on  the  Rivers 
of  Sotavento  of  Veracruz."  A  steamboat  must  perform 
the  special  service  for  passengers  and  mails  carrying  them 
from  Alvarado  to  the  farthest  point  navigable  on  the 
Papaloapan.  Each  of  the  company's  vessels  must  make 
at  least  four  voyages  per  month  and  the  mail  boat  three 
voyages  a  week. 

The  company  carries  the  letters,  printed  matter  and 
parcels  delivered  to  it  by  the  post-offices  and  undertakes 
the  postal  service  between  Tlacotalpan  and  Tuxtepec.  It 
allows  a  reduction  in  the  fare  to  civil  and  military  em- 
ployes, armed  forces  in  the  freight  of  war  material  and 
other  things  pertaining  to  the  government.  In  exchange 
it  receives  from  the  government  a  subvention  of  $5,100 
yearly.  The  contract  is  for  five  years  which  may  be  pro- 
longed for  a  like  term  at  the  will  of  the  parties  to  it. 

POSTAL  STATISTICS. 

VI.  To  obtain  an  exact  idea  of  the  progress  in  Mexico 
of  the  Postal  Authorities  the  following  statistics  are 
quoted. 

The  post-offices  existing  in  the  Federal  District,  States 


80 


THE    KICllES    Ol'    MKXICO 


and  Territories  of  the  Republic  during  the  fiscal  year  1889— 
90  in  accordance  with  Budget  of  Expediture  for  the  said 
period  were  ;is  follows  :  — 


States  AXD  Territories.    Post  OflSces. 

Aguascalientes 4 

Baja  California S 

Campeche 6 

Coahuila 22 

Colima 2 

Chiapas 7 

Chihuahua 20 

Distrito  Federal 1 

Durango 15 

Guanajuato 21 

Guerrero 11 

Hidalgo 19 

Jalisco 2G 

Mdxico 24 

Michoacan 21 

Morelos 7 

Nuevo  Leon 13 

Oasaca H 

Puebla 24 

Queriitaro 7 

San  Luis  Potosi 20 

Sinaloa 13 

Sonora 14 

Tabasco 4 

Taraaulipas 14 

Tepic 7 

Tlaxcahi 6 

Veracruz 30 

Yucatan 13 

Zacatecas 10 

Grand  total 40'J 


Sub-Offices. 

Stations. 
Federal  District. 

Totals. 

2 

6 

12 

20 

3 

.. 

9 

27 

.. 

49 

3 

.. 

5 

17 

.. 

24 

31 

.. 

51 

4 

i: 

i 

18 

32 

.. 

47 

33 

54 

21 

32 

30 

.. 

55 

71 

.. 

97 

41 

.. 

05 

42 

.. 

03 

7 

.. 

14 

26 

.. 

39 

34 

.. 

4S 

47 

.. 

71 

7 

.. 

14 

27 

.. 

47 

22 

.. 

•    35 

59 

.. 

73 

17 

21 

27 

41 

7 

.. 

14 

y 

... 

15 

03 

.. 

93 

39 

52 

21 

... 

37 

790 


13 


1,21: 


AND    ITS-  INSTITUTIONS. 


81 


The  following  figures  give  us  the  amount  of  the  internal 
correspondence  between  the  fiscal  years  1878-79—1889-90. 

Fiscal  Years.  No.  of  Pieces. 

1878  to  1879 5,a92,Gl  1 

1889  "  1880 5,786,790 

1880  "  1881 6,141,790 

1881  "  1882 • 6,732,504 

1882  «  1883  10,640,516 

1883-1884..... 10,488,518 

1884  "  1885 • 11,905,209 

1885  "  1886 13,289,591 

1886  "  1887 ■ 16,504,034 

1887  "1888 27,439,018 

1888-1889 43,052,800 

1889  "  1890 95,852,939 

Total 253,826,320 

COMPARISON. 

Fiscal  Year.                                                     ^o-  °^  Pieces.  Increase.  Decrease. 

1878tol879 5,992.611  

1879  "  1880 5,786,790          205,821 

1880"  1881 6,141,790  355,000         

1881  "1882 6,732,504  590,714        

1882  "1883 10,640,516  3,908,012         

1883"1884 10,488,519           151,998 

1884«1885 11,905,209  416,691         

1885"  1886 13,289,591  1,384,382         

1886"1887 16,504,034  3,214,443         

1887  «'  1888 27,439,018  10,934,984         

1888"  1889 43,052,800  15,613,782         

1889"1890 95,852,939  52,800,139         

By  reason  of  commercial  developments,  the  opening  of 
new  routes  of  communication  and  careful  conduct  of  the 
Postal  Authorities,  the  volume  of  correspondence  has 
notably  increased  and  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1890- 

6 


82  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

91,  165  new  offices  have  been  established;  since  then  there 
has  l)cen  53  additional  offices  added,  making  a  grand  total  of 
1,430  post-office,  extensions,  throughout  the  Republic  of 
Mexico,  the  greater  part  of  which  have  daily  communication. 

During  the  first  six  months  of  the  fis^cal  year  1800-91, 
the  mail  matter  handled  by  the  Mexican  post-office  num- 
bered 63,0(32,4(58  pieces,  in  the  second  half  of  the  same 
year,  65,577,650;  during  the  first  half  of  the  fiscal  year 
1891-92,  67,780,647,  showing  a  decided  gain  over  the 
preceding  half  year  by  1,609,182  pieces  and  4,718,179 
pieces  over  the  first  six  months  of  the  fiscal  year  1890-91. 

The  postal  movement  for  the  six  months  comprehended 
between  July  and  December,  1891,  can  be  divided  as 
follows  : 

Received.  Delivered.  Totaled. 

Letters  and  written  communications : 

Interior  service 9,799,724  12,924,458  22,724,182 

Foreign  service 2,397,298  1,612,223  4,009,521 

Printed  matter  and  samples: 

Interior  service 17,605,122  16,752,154  34,357,276 

Foreign  service 3,850,459  1,611,725  5,462,184 

Registered  matter : 

Interior  service 227,893  270,063  497,956 

Foreign  service 80,300  49,228  129,528 

Oflicial  correspondence : 

Interior  service 10,027,617  13.194,521  23,222,138 

Foreign  service 2,477,598  1,661,451  4,139,049 

Total 46,466,011     48,075,823     94,541,834 

The  postal  card  movement  for  the  same  period  is  this: 

Received 16,600 

Delivered 12,500 

Total 29, 1 00 

The  Custom  House  of  the  city  of  Mexico  haudled  5,666 
packets   couiing  from  England  and  United  States,  during 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  83 

the  period  that  we  are  considering.  The  average  of  the 
daily  circulation  of  the  postal  matter  in  the  offices  of  all 
the  Republic,  is  to  the  amount  of  365,112  pieces. 

Referring  to  the  income  of  post-offices  in  some  of  the 
principal  cities  of  the  Republic,  the  following  data  has  just 
been  published: 

FISCAL   YEAR,  1890-91. 

Acapulco $  *'15*  ^^ 

Celaya 9,145  15 

Chihuahua 15,463  20 

Durango 8,794  90 

Guadalajara 22,836  24 

Guanajuato 13,121  87 

Guaymas ^''^^^  ^^ 

Hermosillo 8,115  40 

Leon 8'^^^  *^^ 

Mazatlan 16,962  05 

Monterey 22,599  79 

Morelia 8,508  65 

Pachuca 9,513  34 

Puebla 36,288  45 

Queretaro ' 8,616  89 

SalttiUo 10,962  84 

San  Luis  Potosi 24,543  32 

Tehuacan 6,500  73 

Tepic 5,013  32 

Toluca ' 6,391  69 

VII.  As  has  been  seen  by  the  last  preceding  contracts 
(HIII.),  credit  has  been  given  to  the  Interior  Department 
for  certain  works  which  have  been  carried  to  completion 
by  the  Department  of  Communications  and  Public  Works. 
It  could  not  possibly  be  otherwise,  without  falling  into  a 
labyrinth  of  confusions,  more  especially  to  those  but  little 
versed  in  the  economic  problems  of   Mexico  ;  as  by  virtue 


84  THE  RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

of  the  law  promulgated  May  8tb,  1891,  which  created  the 
Department  of  Communications  and  Public  Works,  marked 
separations  had  been  made  in  the  others,  principally  in 
those  of  Colonization,  Industry  and  Commerce  and  of  the 
Interior,  as  a  result  of  which  the  continuity  of  the  works 
would  be  interrupted,  and  that  which  might  have  been 
commenced  by  one  would  be  carried  forward  or  completed 
by  other.  For  the  purpose  of  clearness,  it  has  been  con- 
sidered preferable  in  this  book  not  to  divide  the  series  of 
the  works,  but  to  credit  each  one  to  its  original  department, 
making  mention,  however,  of  the  new  Department,  at  the 
stage  where  said  series  were  continued  by  the  latter. 

It  will  also  be  noted  that  various  branches  of  the  Interior 
Department  have  been  omitted  in  this  chapter  and  in  the 
same  manner  we  have  treated  the  others  ;  this  was  required 
by  the  plan  of  the  work,  as  from  the  different  departments 
we  have  separated  those  subjects,  which,  by  virtue  of  their 
importance,  required  to  be  treated  separately. 


MkL\KA>f    UAILROAD   IROM   VERACKUZ  TO   CITY   OV  MXXICO. 

Mex.  A.  T.  U.  Los  Siglos. 


AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS. 


85 


CHAPTEE  III. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  JUSTICE  AND  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION. 

I.  Of  late  years  the  department  of  State  has  directed 
special  attention  towards  two  of  the  important  branches 
subordinate  to  that  office. 

Its  most  important  dispositions  have  tended,  first,  to 
make  uniform  the  legislation,  in  which  task  it  has  met  with 
frequent  and  serious  difficulties  on  being  applied  to  the 
courts,  and,  secondly,  to  procure  an  increase  of  institutions 
for  public  instruction,  choosing  such  methods  of  teaching 
as  are  best  adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  people. 

The  progress  made  in  this  second  order  of  labors  is 
detailed  in°the  chapter  of  this  work  bearing  upon  public 
instruction,  and  in  the  present  one  are  set  forth  the  condi- 
tions of  the  Federal  juridical  power,  the  functions  of  which 
are  exercised  by  the  courts  established  by  the  law  of  the 
country.  These  courts  are :  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice, 
first  in  the  ascending  scale  of  Federal  jurisdiction,— and  the 
circuit  courts  and  judicatures  of  district,  which  form  the 
starting  point  of  said  jurisprudence. 

In  this  chapter  are  likewise  pointed  out  the  principal 
works  begun  with  the  object  of  uniforming  the  civil  legisla- 
tion of  the  Federal  District  and  Territories. 

SUPREME    COURT. 

This  institution  was  created  by  the  Congress  of  Consti- 
tuents in  virtue  of  the  resolution  of  August  27th,  1824. 
On  the  4th  of  October  of  that  same  year  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution marked  out  its  contributions,  and,  by  decree  of 
February  14th,  1826,  its  organization  was  finally  completed. 


86  THK    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

By  the  law  of  May  23,  1837,  it  underwent  a  new  organi- 
zation, which  it  retained  until  the  2d  of  September,  1846, 
when  it  was  re-organized  under  the  former  law  of  1837. 

By  the  decree  of  December  16th,  1853,  the  Supreme 
Court  was  denominated  ♦'  Tribunal  Supremo,"  a  title  which 
it  kept  until  November,  1855,  when  it  re-assumed  its  origi- 
nal name. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  is  organized  in  conformity 
•with  the  Constitution  of  February  5th,  1857,  and  is  com- 
posed of  eleven  Magistrates,  four  Supernumeraries,  an 
Attorney-General,  and  a  Solicitor.  It  is  divided  into  three 
Boards  of  Commissioners.  Affairs  of  its  cognizance  are 
dispatched  with  subjection  to  the  by-laws  of  July  29th, 
1859. 

This  tribunal  has  twice  been  interrupted  in  the  course  of 
its  functions,  first,  by  decree  of  November  22d,  1859, 
when  due  to  the  strife  with  the  conservative  party,  the  ex- 
ercise of  its  attributions  was  commuted  to  the  courts  of 
the  States,  until  constitutional  order  was  re-established 
throughout  the  country  at  the  end  of  June,  1861.  The 
second  iiiterru[)tiou  occurred  during  the  War  of  Intervention 
by  the  French  Empire.  At  that  period  the  court,  upon 
beino"  reorganized  by  decree  of  August,  1867,  became  in 
vested  with  the  attributions  corresj)onding  to  the  Superior 
Court  of  Federal  District,  but  it  relinquished  the  exercise  of 
these  attributions  upon  its  re-establishment  on  the  3d  of 
May.  1868. 

CIRCUIT  COURTS  AND    DISTRICT  JUDICATURES. 

These  courts  were  created  by  the  law  of  May  20th,  1826, 
and  their  organization  has  been  subject,  to  the  decree  pro- 
mulgated on  the  22d  of  May,  1834,  as  well  as  those  of 
Octol)er  2d,  184(;,  and  November  23d,  1855. 

Twice  have  the  circuit  courts  been  suppressed,  tirst,  by  the 


AND    ITS    IXSTITUTIOXS.  87 

decree  of  October  18,  1841,  until  their  re-establishment 
took  place  in  September,  1846,  and  their  second  suppres- 
sion took  place  by  the  decree  of  September  20,  1853,  until 
the  23d  of  November,  1855,  when  their  second  re-establish- 
ment was  brought  about  by  virtue  of  the  decree  issued  on 
that  date. 

Duriiio-  their  suppression  these  courts  were  substituted 
by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  States. 

Since  the  creation,  on  the  23d  of  November,  1855,  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  Federal  District,  its  first  Board 
of  Commissioners  was  vested  with  the  attributions  of  cir- 
cuit court,  until  the  creation  of  the  court  of  that  name,  on 
the  1st  of  June,  1878. 

As  the  system  of  government  in  Mexico  is  based  on  the 
absolute  independence  of  the  powers,  the  Department  of 
Justice  has  no  privileges  whatever  in  these  courts  other 
than  those  of  appointing  their  employes  and  granting 
licenses  to  these  upon  application. 

The  aforesaid  law  of  June  1st,  1878,  makes  provision  to 
the  effect  that  the  Magistrates  of  the  Circuit  Court,  Judges 
of  District,  and  their  respective  secretaries,  are  appointed 
by  the  President  of  the  Eepublic,—  a  list  of  the  applicants 
to  the  office  having  been  presented  previously  by  the 
Supreme  Court,  within  a  fortnight  of  the  date  upon  which 
it  has  been  demanded.  After  the  lapse  of  this  term  the 
appointment  is  made  by  the  Executive,  the  Courts,  in  that 
case,  having  forfeited  their  right  to  interfere  in  the  matter. 

The  attorneys-general  are  appointed  and  removed  at  will 
by  the  Executive,  the  same  as  the  other  employes  of  minor 
importance.  Both  those  of  the  Circuit  Courts  and  those  of 
the  District  Judicatures,  are  appointed  by  the  Supreme 
Court,  in  conformity  with  a  list  of  three  applicants  presented 
by  the  coiTesponding  courts  and  judges. 

The  circuit  magistrates  and  the  district  judges  continue 
four  years  in  office.     They  consider  the  case  before  them, 


88  THE    RICHES   OF    MEXICO 

whether  with  the  assistance  of  secretaries  or  with  wit- 
nesses, beiug  aided  in  the  exercise  of  their  office  by  a  sec- 
ular attorney-general. 

There  are  actually  eight  circuit  courts,  distributed 
around  in  the  States,  being  located  at  the  following  points: 
Culiacan,  Chihuahua,  Guadalajara,  Merida,  Mexico,  Mon- 
terey, Orizaba  and  Queretaro. 

The  Court  of  Culiacan  comprises  the  district  judicatures 
of  Lower  California,  Sinaloa  and  Sonora, —  the  Court  of 
Chihuahua,  the  judicatures  of  Chihuahua,  Duraugo  and 
Paso  del  Norte, —  the  Court  of  Guadalajara,  the  judicatures 
of  Aguascalientes,  Colima,  Jalisco,  Tepic  Territory  and 
Zacatecas, —  the  Court  of  Merida,  the  judicatures  of  Cam- 
peche,  Chiapas  (San  Cristobal  Las  Cas:is),  Tabasco  and 
Yucatan, —  the  Court  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  the  first  and 
second  judicatures  of  the  Federal  District,  and  those  of 
Guerrero,  Hidalgo,  State  of  Mexico,  Morelos  and  Tlax- 
cala, —  the  Court  of  Monterrey  the  judicatures  of  Coa- 
huila  (Saltillo),  Nuevo  Leon,  Nuevo  Laredo,  Matamoros, 
(Tamaulipas),  and  Piedras  Negras  (Porfirio  Diaz  City, 
Coahuila)  — and  to  the  Court  of  Orizaba  belong  the  judi- 
catures of  Oaxaca,  Puebla,  Tampico  (Tamaulipas),  Tapa- 
chula  (Chiapas),  first  of  Veracruz  (Jalapa),  and  second 
of  Veracruz,  established  in  the  port  of  that  name, —  and, 
finally,  to  the  Court  of  Queretaro  correspond  the  judica- 
tures of  Guanajuato,  Michoacan,  Queretaro  and  San  Luis 
Potosl. 

The  district  judicatures  number  thirty-eight  and  are 
distributed  one  in  each  State  of  the  Republic,  with  excep- 
tion of  Chiapas,  Chihuahua,  Coahuila  and  Veracruz,  where 
two  exist,  as  also  in  Lower  California  and  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict. There  are  three  in  Tamaulipas,  aud  one  in  the 
Tepic  Territory. 


JOAQUIN  BARAXDA. 

Secretary  of  Justice. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  89 


EIGHT    OF    HABEAS  CORPUS. 

("Ley  de  Amparo.") 

II.  The  recourse  of  habeas  corpus,  which  has  for  object 
to  make  effective  in  a  country  the  guarantee  offered  by  its 
constitution,  was  in  Mexico  first  regulated  by  the  law  of 
February  28th,  1861.  The  deficiency  of  this  law  origi- 
nated the  initiative  presented  in  the  Congress  of  the  Union 
on  the  30th  of  October,  1868,  which,  being  approved  with 
modifications,  became  a  law  on  the  20th  of  January,  1869. 
This  law  prohibited  the  action  of  habeas  corpus  in  mat- 
ters of  juridical  character,  but  the  Supreme  Court,  moved 
by  the  fundamental  idea  of  the  Constitution,  found  it  nec- 
essary to  grant  a  counter  sentence  in  the  courts  in  cases 
that  constituted  a  violation  of  guarantee,  thus  establishing 
a  practice  which,  although  in  conformity  with  the  injunc- 
tions of  the  Constitution,  nevertheless  gave  the  Court,  in  the 
opinion  of  some  litigants,  the  character  of  revisor  of  all 
kinds  of  sentences. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  cases  where  the  reclaimer  act  was 
suspended,  the  Federal  authorities  had  no  other  rule  to  go 
by  but  its  own  criterion,  whereby  the  right  of  habeas 
corpus  became  illusory  in  many  cases. 

These  diflSculties  became  more  visible  when  a  grant  of 
habeas  corpus  was  given  in  cases  of  recruiting  for  the 
army,  as  it  then  became  necessar}',  in  order  to  make  effect- 
ive the  writ  of  execution  issued  by  the  courts,  to  conciliate 
the  discipline  and  privileges  of  the  militia,  with  the  respect 
due  to  sentences  of  the  Federal  justice. 

These  and  other  difficulties  of  the  second  law  of  ordin- 
ance, bearing  upon  the  recourse  of  the  right  of  habeas 
corpus,  which  presented  themselves  in  practice,  induced 
the  Department  of  Justice  to  submit,  on  the  2nd  of 
October,  1877,  another  project  of  reform  to  the  Con2:res3, 


90  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

which,  beins  discussed  together  with  one  presented  by  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Justice  in  1878,  gave  origin  to  the  third 
law  on  the  subject  now  in  force,  and  which  was  promul- 
gated on  the  14th  of  December,  1882. 

This  new  law  details  minutely  the  cases  in  which  the  Fed- 
eral authority  can  decree  t4ie  suppression  of  the  rechiimed 
act,  and  makes  the  right  of  habeas  corpus  in  matters 
of  juridical  character  against  sentences  pronounced  by  the 
courts,  when  these  sentences  signify  a  violation  of  individual 
fTuarantees,  or  an  attack  upon  the  sovereignty  of  the  States. 

It  extended  sufficient  jurisdictional  power  to  the  local 
judges  and  to  the  mayors  that  they,  as  auxiliaries  to  the 
district  judge  in  the  localities  where  there  were  none  of 
these,  might,  in  the  terms  of  the  law,  recognize  in  the 
requests  for  right  of  habeas  corpus  and  suspend  the 
reclaimed  act. 

Thus  vanished  the  difficulties  upon  which  the  right  of 
habeas  corpus  stum])led  in  the  recruiting  cases.  In  these 
cases  the  law  provides  that  the  writ  of  suspension  shall  be 
notified  to  the  field  or  subaltern  officer  commissioned  to 
execute  the  act,  and  that  without  delay,  through  the  Sec- 
retary of  Justice,  the  Secretary  of  War  is  also  imparted 
with  the  fact,  that  he  may  order  the  non-removal  of  the 
promovent  from  the  place  from  which  he  solicited  the  right 
of  habeas  corpus,  until  the  sentence  is  fully  pronounced. 
In  that  case  the  Supreme  ("ourt  of  Justice,  upon  returning 
the  writs  to  the  judge,  shall  forward,  through  the  Secretary 
of  the  Branch,  copy  of  the  sentence  to  the  Secretary  of 
War,  that  this  functionary,  in  his  turn,  may  order  without 
delay  the  execution  of  the  sentence. 

This  itame  law  establishes  the  responsibility  of  the  author- 
ities resisting  the  determinations  of  justice,  detailing  also 
the  cases  in  which  the  judges,  by  thus  violating  the  law, 
nmst  present  themselves  before  their  superiors  to  respond 
for  their  conduct. 


AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS.  91 

Code  of  Proceedings  in  the  Federal  Jurisdiction. 

III.  The  inefficiency,  under  the  political  system  prevalent 
in  the  country,  of  some  legal  dispositions  inherited  from  the 
Spanish  legislation  and  still  in  force  in  the  Federal  juris- 
diction, —  the  deficiency  of  those  dictated  at  later  periods, — 
and,  finally,  the  notorious  legal  influence  exercised  by  the 
Federal  courts  in  matters  differing  so  much  in  tendencies 
as  do  those  appertaining  to  the  Department  of  Dispatch, — 
have,  since  the  year  1872,  brought  the  Executive  on  the 
idea  of  forming  a  Code  of  Proceedings  in  matters  of 
Federal  interest. 

In  1877,  finding  it  necessary  to  dispatch  at  least  the 
organic  law  of  Article  96  of  the  Constitution, —  which 
article  orders  the  establishment  and  organization  of  circuit 
courts  and  district  judicatures  —  a  project  to  that  effect 
was  presented  to  Congress  for  its  approval.  This  project, 
though  examined  and  approved  by  the  House  of  Deputies, 
is  still  pending  in  the  House  of  Senators.  Neither  was  any 
practical  result  obtained  to  this  end,  when,  in  1881,  the 
same  project  was  submitted  to  the  examination  of  another 
commission.  Finally,  in  1885,  a  new  commission  was 
appointed  to  study  the  question  of  the  required  code,  the 
results  of  its  labors  having  been  presented  to  the  Govern- 
ment for  revision. 

CODE    OF    COMMERCE. 

IV.  The  ordinance  of  Bilbao,  the  observance  of  which 
was  prescribed  by  decrees  issued  on  the  22d  of  February, 
1792,  and  April  27th,  1801,  being  adopted  in  the  country 
as  a  standard  in  the  field  of  commercial  intercourse,  consti- 
tuted in  Mexico  the  legislation  of  commerce. 

After  the  Independence  this  legislation  underwent  inno- 
vations and  reforms,  until  the  promulgation,  on  the  16th  of 
May,   1854,    of    the   first    :Mexican    Code    of    Commerce, 


S2  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

despoiling  the  central  Government  of  its  authority  in  that 
direction. 

This  code  did  not  suit  the  country  because  of  the  form 
of  government  under  which  it  had  been  constituted  and  its 
democratic  principles,  sanctioned  by  the  constitution  of 
1857,  and,  hence,  its  reform  became  necessary.  The  labors 
bearing  on  this  reform  were  inaugurated  in  1867,  but  not 
before  1880,  owing  to  the  interruption  of  wars,  was  the 
project  completed  by  the  commission  appointed  for  that 
purpose,  and  in  September  of  the  following  year  the  said 
project  was  forwarded  to  Congress  for  approval. 

On  the  suggestion  of  the  respective  commission  of  Con- 
gress, the  President  was  authorized,  by  decree  of  June, 
1883,  to  effect  a  new  revision  of  the  project  and  to  pro- 
mulgate the  corresponding  law.  On  the  strength  of  this 
decree,  the  President,  on  the  15th  of  April,  1884,  issued  a 
new  code,  which  was  approved  by  the  National  Congress 
on  the  31st  of  Ma}'  of  the  same  year.  Two  months  later, 
on  the  20th  of  June,  the  Commercial  Register  became  its 
b^'^-laws,  constructed  by  the  secretaries  of  the  civil  branch 
of  the  judicature. 

When,  by  decree  of  December,  1885,  the  functions  of 
the  Commercial  Register  passed  over  to  the  offices  of  the 
Public  Register,  this  by-law  had  to  be  reformed,  an  opera- 
tion that  was  effected  on  the  201  h  of  December  of  the 
same  year. 

Nevertheless,  in  practice  it  became  evident  that  this  Code 
labored  under  the  disadvantage  of  severul  detects,  due  to 
the  modification  it  had  undergone  by  the  former  decree 
issued  by  Congress,  as  well  as  to  certain  disposition  it  con- 
tained relative  especially  to  the  Banks  of  Issue  and  Circu- 
lation. Hence,  with  a  view  to  removing  these  defects,  the 
president  was  authorized,  by  decree  of  June  4,  1887,  to 
reform  totally  or  partially  this  Code.  To  this  end  a  siiecial 
commission    was  .ippoiiil cd   on    the    21st    of  that    month, 


A^D    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  93- 

which  ill  the  foHowing  year  presented  a  project  of  partial 
reform  bearing  upon  limited  companies.  This  project  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  law  on  the  10th  of  April,  1888. 

■The  labors  of  the  commission  next  directed  themselves 
to  making  other  modifications  of  importance,  which  gave 
origin  to  the  new  Code  now  in  force,  which  was  published 
on  the  15th  of  September,  1889,  and  commenced  to  take 
effect  after  the  1st  of  September,  1890. 

CIVIL    CODE    AND    ITS    CODE    OF    PROCEEDINGS. 

V.  As  the  legislation  of  Spain  became  inefiicacious  to 
Mexico  independent,  it  became  necessary  to  adopt  it  in  its 
new  political  existence.  With  this  end  in  view,  on  the  22d 
of  January,  1822,  commissions  were  appointed  for  the  first 
time  to  form  their  projects  of  civil  and  penal  legislation. 
The  results  obtained  in  that  direction  are  not  known. 

During  the  war  called  *'  The  War  of  Three  Years," 
President  Juarez,  then  residing  with  the  Government  inVera- 
cruz,  recommended  in  1858  the  formation  of  a  Civil  Code 
to  the  jurist  Justo  Sierra  who,  in  less  than  one  year,  pre- 
sented a  project  on  the  subject,  which  circulated  in  print  in 
1861.  Some  time  afterwards  a  commission  was  appointed 
to  revise  and  modify  the  project,  but  when  on  the  point  of 
finishing  its  work,  it  was  obliged  to  suspend  proceedings 
owing  to  the  French  Intervention.  Upon  the  return  of  the 
Government  to  the  Capital  another  commission  was  appointed 
to  finish  this  incompleted  work,  which  was  done  in  1870. 

The  project  was  approved  by  Congress  by  decree  of 
December  8th,  of  the  said  year,  and  commenced  to  rule  in 
the  Federal  District  and  Territories  of  Lower  California 
from  the  1st  of  March,  1871. 

After  this  several  States  adopted  the  code,  some  without 
any  modification,  and  others  with  those  necessary  to  meet 
their  local  requirements. 

In  June,  1882,  a  commission  was  appointed  to  study  the 


94  THE    laCHES    OF    MEXICO 

modifications  that  should  be  made  in  the  aforesaid  code,  as 
some  defects  in  its  application  had  been  pointed  out.  The 
new  project,  embracing  important  reforms,  was  presented  in 
March,  1883. 

On  the  14th  of  December  of  the  same  year,  Congress 
authorized  the  President  to  promulgate  the  accorded  modi- 
fications, and  to  that  purpose  was  adoj)ted  the  new  code  on 
the  SIstof  March,  1884,  which  is  now  in  force. 

The  promulgation  of  the  Civil  Code  carried  with  it  the 
necessity  of  the  formation  of  proceedings  in  this  matter. 
The  commission  to  which  the  formation  of  this  code  was 
commended  presented  its  project  in  1872,  and  after  being 
revised  it  was  issued  as  a  law  and  commenced  to  go  into 
effect  on  the  15th  of  September  of  the  same  year. 

In  April,  1875,  the  Legislative  Power  authorized  the 
Government  to  appoint  a  commission  to  propose  the  neces- 
sary additions  and  cx[)l:inations  to  this  code,  inasmuch  as  in 
practice  it  had  been  found  to  contain  very  prominent  defects. 

The  project  of  reforms  was  presented  in  November  of 
the  same  year  and  forwarded  to  Congress  for  approbation. 
The  house  not  being  able  to  proceed  with  the  required 
promptness  in  the  discussion  of  the  project,  it  authorized 
the  Government,  by  decree  of  June  1st,  1880,  to  realize  the 
reforms.  In  consequence,  the  code  was  promulgated,  go- 
ing into  effect  on  the  1st  of  November  of  that  year. 

The  last  reform  to  which  the  Code  of  Proceedings  was 
subject  was  niade  by  the  same  commission  that  performed 
the  same  duties  respecting  the  Civil  Code.  The  project  in 
question  was  presented  to  Congress  on  the  7th  of  June, 
1883,  but  the  house  authorized  the  Government  on  the 
14th  of  December  of  that  year  to  publish  both  codes.  In 
virtue  of  this  authorization,  the  Civil  Proceedings  were 
promulgated  on  the  15th  of  May,  1884,  and  were  ai)proved 
>)y  the  Legislative  power  on  the  31st  of  the  ^ame  month. 
This  code  is  slill  in  force. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  95 


PENAL  CODE  AND  ITS  CODE  OF  PROCEEDINGS. 

VI.  The  formation  of  a  Mexican  Penal  Code  was  initi- 
ated, as  has  been  stated,  since  1822.  Later,  in  1852,  Juarez 
recommended  the  study  of  a  project  for  Penal  Code  and 
Proceedings  to  the  lawyer  Juan  A.  de  la  Fuente,  but  the 
result  of  this  work  is  unknown. 

In  1862  a  commission  was  appointed  to  form  a  Penal 
Code,  but  this  commission  did  not  conclude  its  work  on  ac- 
count of  the  War  of  Intervention.  In  September,  1868, 
the  works  were  taken  up  again,  and  the  project  was  finally 
finished  by  the  commission  in  May,  1871.  At  the  end  of 
that  year,  on  the  7th  of  December,  it  came  into  force  by 
the  law  of  that  date,  beginning  to  rule  on  the  1st  of  April, 
1872.  Later  the  code  has  undergone  the  reforms  pro- 
mulgated by  decree  of  May  26th,  1884. 

In  order  to  form  the  Code  of  Proceedings  in  the  penal 
branch,  a  commission  was  appointed  on  the  4th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1871.  This  commission  presented  to  the  Department 
of  Justice,  in  1872,  the  respective  project,  which,  after  a 
close  revision,  was  ordered  in  print  to  further  its  greater 
circulation. 

In  1880  the  works  of  the  code  were  taken  up  again  with 
earnest  desire,  and  the  members  of  the  commission  did  not 
cease  to  hold  frequent  conferences  until  they  definitely 
ended  this  labor. 

The  decree  of  June  1st,  1880,  authorized  the  Executive 
to  put  in  force  the  new  law,  and,  thus,  on  the  15th  of 
September  of  that  year  the  law  was  promulgated,  begin- 
ning to  rule  on  the  1st  of  November. 

Lastly,  a  new  commission  has  been  recommended  to  form 
some  modifications  which  this  code  needs,  in  view  of  the 
difficulties  encountered  in  practice.  This  commission  has 
not,  as  yet,  presented  the  result  of  its  works. 


96  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 


CHAPTER  lY. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  COLONIZATION  — INDUSTRY  AND  COMMERCE. 

I.  The  amount  of  work  executed  by  this  Department 
has  been  of  such  a  varied  nature  as  to  render  it  impossible 
to  treat  it  under  this  heading.  We  shall,  therefore,  simply 
refer  at  present  to  the  most  important  among  these  which 
have  seen  the  light  since' the  restoration  of  peace,  in  1876, 
and  such  as  have  been  completed  during  the  same  period, 
although  initiated  by  a  previous  administration. 

Great  portion  of  the  affairs  of  this  Department  will  be 
dealt  with  under  separate  chapters,  agreeably  with  the 
general  plan  of  this  work. 

General  Vicente  Riva  Palacio  was  the  first  to  give  an 
impulse  to  the  affairs  of  the  Department  of  Fomentation. 
Since,  these  have  been  improved  upon  by  his  successors, 
General  Carlos  Pacheco,  and  the  intelligent  and  distin- 
guished engineer,  Mr.  Manuel  Fernandez  Leal,  the  present 
incumbent. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Notwithstanding  the  earnest  endeavors  on  the  part  of  the 
Government  to  issue  a  general  chart  of  the  Re]iublic  that 
should  advantageously  replace  the  first  atlas  and  oflicial 
chart  published  in  1850,  the  impecunious  condition  of  the 
General  Kxche(iuer  placed  a  bar  in  the  way  of  proper  public 
development  and  individual  enterprise. 

From  the  time  that  the  Department  of  Fomentation 
undertook  to  push  thc.-^o  works  especial  attention  has  been 
devoted  to  thorn  without  interruption   of  any  kind.     The 


MANUEL  FERNANDEZ  LEAL. 
Secretary  of  .Colonization,  Industry  and  Commerce. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  97 

Geographical  Exploring  Committee  of  the  national  terri- 
tory, comprised  of  civil  engineers,  aided  by  a  military 
staff,  has  been  organized  and  extended  their  field  of  opera- 
tion to  a  great  portion  of  the  States  of  the  Kepublic,  gath- 
ering large  amount  of  useful  information  to  determine  the 
geographical  co-ordinates  of  the  most  important  localities. 
Those  of  less  importance  being  determined  by  topographi- 
cal observations  derived  from  the  former.  They  have  like- 
wise been  fixing  the  route  of  the  different  roads  through  the 
States  where  the  survey  has  been  conducted  and  made 
detailed  maps  of  the  same.  The  War  Department  has 
made  a  careful  examination  of  the  roads,  rendering  a 
minute  report  which  illustrates  the  difiiculties  to  be  en- 
countered durino;  a  march  as  well  as  the  most  advantageous 
posts  for  battle  along  the  roads  traveled  over. 

The  department  of  Natural  History,  which  has  been 
attached  to  the  Geographical  Committee,  has  acquired  the 
most  accurate  data  concerning  the  special  conditions  that 
characterize  the  Mexican  territory,  and  the  development 
and  improvement  of  its  natural  resources. 

The  Mexican  committee  appointed  to  determine  the 
national  boundary  lines  with  regard  to  the  United  States 
and  Guatemala,  besides  fixing  with  due  precision  the  bound- 
aries between  Mexico  and  said  countries  have  also  made 
important  local  studies  on  different  sections  of  the  Republic. 
To  the  preceding  stock  of  information  must  be  added  the 
data  acquired  by  the  special  committee  appointed  by  the 
Department  of  Fomentation  in  1881,  to  carry  on  the  coast 
survey  along  the  PaciGc  coast  and  adjacent  islands.  Owing 
to  these  studies  a  more  thorough  knowledge  has  been 
attained  with  regard  to  the  geographical  position,  topo- 
graphical formation  and  geological  constitution  of  the  coast 
and  neighboring  islands,  as  well  as  of  the  natural  products 
to  be  found  thereon,  while  the  production  and  development 
of  the  pearl  shell,  the  mother-of-pearl,  the  tortoise  shell, 

7 


98  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

giuiiio,  hemp  and  precious  woods  has  received  considerable 
attention. 

All  this  scientific  work,  together  with  that  contributed  by 
difterent  States  and  diverse  colonization  companies  comprise 
a  large  stock  of  valuable  information  which  has  been  utilized 
in  making  up  the  map  of  Mexico. 

GEOGRAPHICAL   EXPLORING    COMMITTEE. 

"With  the  view  of  acquiring  an  exact  knowledge  of  the 
natural  resources  of  the  country  and  forming  an  accurate 
estimate  of  the  requirements  of  the  different  localities  the 
Government,  in  1877,  issued  orders  for  the  drawing  up  of 
official  geographical  charts.  The  government  printing 
department  being  alread}'  in  possession  of  all  the  existing 
data  on  the  subject,  the  Secretary  of  Fomentation  in 
order  to  inaugurate  the  operations  on  the  field,  presented 
during  the  same  year,  a  bill  before  Congress  for  the  pur- 
pose of  appointing  the  committee  intrusted  with  the 
collection  of  the  necessary  geographical  and  statistical 
information.  The  aforesaid  bill  was  passed  under  decree 
of  Congress  in  December  of  the  same  year,  the  resolution 
being  immediately  followed  by  the  appointment  of  the 
otpcial  staff  composed  of  a  director,  a  chief  engineer,  and 
six  assistant  engineers.  The  appointment  of  a  director 
fell  upon  Mr.  Agustin  Diaz,  civil  engineer,  who  Avas  nomi- 
nated January  1st,  1878,  the  rest  of  the  committee  receiving 
their  appointment  on  the  15th  of  the  same  month. 

On  the  30th  day  of  April  the  staff  was  reduced  to  a 
director,  a  chief  engineer  and  one  assistant  engineer,  thus 
upsetting  the  original  plans  of  the  committee  who  there- 
upon decided  to  proceed  in  their  work  zone  by  zone, 
shaping  their  future  course  in  conformity  with  the  cir- 
cumstances. 

On  the  lOtJiof  May  the  committee  proceeded  to  the  city 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  99 

of  Puebla,  the  eastern  region  having  been  selected  for  the 
inauguration  of  operations. 

The  results  obtained  from  the  very  start  proved  of  such 
importance  that  the  War  Department  conchided  to  increase 
the  staff  of  the  committee  and,  in  September,  1879,  ap- 
pointed ten  engineers  selected  from  among  staff'  officers 
and  one  naturalist  engineer  to  wait  upon  the  committee. 
Later  on  a  still  greater  addition  was  made  to  the  committee 
by  the  appointment,  on  July  1st,  1882,  of  a  group  of 
accountants  and  draftsmen  and  a  section  of  Natural  History. 
The  Geographical  Exploring  Committee  is  at  present  com- 
posed of  a  chief  managing  engineer,  one  second  managing 
engineer,  one  second  engineer,  two  third  ditto,  two  assistant 
engineers,  one  engineer,  secretary  and  one  clerk,  not  to 
mention  nineteen  men  belonging  to  the  outfit  of  accountants, 
draftsmen  and  the  department  of  Natural  History,  nor  the 
military  corps  attached  to  same,  which  deserve  especial 
mention  hereafter. 

On  completion  of  the  work  in  the  State  of  Puebla  the 
committeetransferred  theirfield  of  operations  to  Jalapa  in  the 
early  part  of  October,  1880,  in  order  to  commence  work  in 
the  State  of  Veracruz.  Shortly  after,  on  May  12th,  1881, 
it  was  decided  to  send  the  second  engineer  to  Nuevo  Leon, 
and  Tamaulipas,  in  charge  of  a  section,  to  proceed  with 
the  drawing  up  of  the  geographical  charts  of  those  States. 
This  section  took  up  its  headquarters  at  Matamoros  and 
after  fulfilling  its  mission  was  recalled  and  proceeded  to  join 
the  committe  in  Jalapa,  each  member  falling  back  upon  his 
respective  section. 

.  At  the  beginning  the  work  was  confined  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  charts,  the  astronomical  position  of  the  city  of 
Puebla  and  other  heads  of  departments;  the  location  of 
the  roads  by  means  of  the  troqueameter  and  hand  com- 
pass. The  latitude  was  ascertained  by  the  most  approved 
methods,  and    the    longitude  was    taken    by  the    absolute 


100  THE   RICHES    OF    MKXICO 

longitude  of  Puebla.  The  work  was  executed  with  such 
expedition  that  within  one  3^ear  the  necessary  information 
had  been  collected  to  report  upon  the  sections  that  had 
been  surveyed.  In  the  execution  of  the  General  Chart 
care  was  taken  to  accurately  mark  on  the  zones  gone 
over  certain  points  conveniently  distributed  on  the  map 
showing  the  geographical  route,  and  over  this  the  work 
in  detail,  therefore  in  the  development  of  the  plan  are  com- 
prised the  following :  the  direct  astronomical  positions  and 
the  geodetical  and  topographical  situations.  The  geograph- 
ical position  has  been  ascertained  by  longitude  through 
telegraphic  signals  exchanged  between  the  observatory  in 
the  capital  of  the  Eepublic  and  the  field  of  operations, 
and  in  very  few  instances,  by  observation  and  com- 
parison of  our  chronometers;  the  latitude  by  means  of 
diverse  astronomical  observations,  especially  those  of  cir- 
cummeridian  stars,  selected  by  pairs  at  the  time  of  culmi- 
nation, when  nearly  equizenitical.  The  altitude  has  been 
obtained  by  means  of  a  sufiicient  number  of  hipsometrical 
observations  taken  simultaneously  with  the  barometrical 
observations  of  Meteorological  National  Observatory  of 
Mexico,  or  at  the  headquarters  of  the  committee. 

With  regard  to  the  geodetical  position  this  has  been  as- 
certained by  means  of  topographical  lines  forming  great 
polygons  based  on  astronomical  points  clearly  defined,  so 
that  the  operation  may  easily  be  verified  by  either  system. 

The  topographical  part  of  the  work  has  been  subdivided 
into  the  following  classes,  viz. :  the  preparation  of 
especial  maps,  in  order  to  familiarize  the  ofiicers  of  the 
committee  with  the  different  processes  that  might  be  em- 
ployed; in  drafting  out  and  ])reparing  the  General  Map;  in 
the  formation  of  top()graj)liical  maps  of  diverse  towns  and 
finally  in  reconnoitering  military  jjositious  lor  the  use  of 
the  War  Department. 

At  head(iuarters,  the  residence  of  the  Managing  Director, 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  101 

are  to  be  found  the  difierent  oflSces  of  Military  Adminis- 
tration in  charge  of  the  service  and  the  national  guard  and 
the  departments  of  Accountants,  Draftsmen,  Observations, 
Lithography  and  Photography,  under  their  respective 
managers. 

The  Department  of  the  Secretary  is  in  charge  of  the  cor- 
respondence and  keeps  the  records  of  the  committee  as 
well  as  all  printed  matter  addressed  to  same. 

The  Department  of  Accountants  looks  after  the  numer- 
ical results  obtained  by  the  outfits  appointed  by  the  com- 
mittee, and  the  reporters  on  the  field  ;  prepare  the  schedules 
and  forms  to  be  used  by  the  committee  and  preserve  on 
record  all  the  figures  made  by  the  members  of  the  different 
outfits. 

The  Department  of  Draftsmen  manage  the  collection  of 
field  notes  and  all  further  information  for  the  preparation 
of  the  geographical  map. 

The  Meteorological  and  Astronomical  Observatories 
erected  on  the  field  of  operations  have  a  twofold  object, 
viz.:  it  tends  to  keep  the  ofiicers  in  practice  as  regards  the 
use  of  the  instruments  after  marking  the  geographical 
position  of  the  locality  in  each  group  and  at  the  same 
time,  to  obtain,  within  a  given  period,  most  valuable  infor- 
mation on  the  climatological  conditions  of  said  localities 
which  shall  correspond  with  the  simultaneous  observations 
of  temperature  and  atmospheric  pressure  taken  by  the 
different  groups  during  their  excursions  in  order  to  obtain 
the  exact  altitude  of  their  respective  localities. 

The  lithographic  and  engraving  plants  were  definitely 
erected  with  the'  machinery  received  from  Paris  for  the 
purpose  in  June,  1889. 

These  departments  midertake  the  issue  of  printed  forms 
adapted  to  all  the  purposes  of  the  committee,  thus  facilitat- 
ing the  execution  of  estimates  of  other  operations;  the 
diajrrams  of  route  marked  on  sections  of  the  chart  devoted 


102  THE    RICHES    OF    MKXICO 

to  the  benefit  of  the  War  Depurtnicnt;  the  tabulated 
schedule  of  signals  to  be  employed  in  the  engraving  of  the 
maps ;  the  printing  of  circulars  on  the  regulations  of  the 
Sfientific  Committee;  the  proper  lal)els  for  the  adequate 
denomination  of  exhibits  at  tlic  Museum,  etc.,  etc. 

The  department  ot  photograph}',  photo-engraving,  and 
photo-zincography  at  the  staff  officers'  quarters,  in  the  "War 
Department,  lie  under  the  management  of  the  Director, 
Mr.  Fernando  Ferrari  Perez,  at  the  head  of  the  section  on 
Natural  History,  per  especial  grant  issued  April,  1891. 

The  Geographical  Exploring  Committee  commands 
the  services  of  a  military  guard  composed  of  laborers  and 
working  men  who  furnish  their  help  on  the  field  and  in  the 
shops  established  by  the  committee.  They  also  mount 
guard  on  the  field,  under  command  of  their  superior  offi- 
cers, and  in  the  shops  serve  at  the  orders  of  a  superintend- 
ent and  an  overseer. 

The  different  sections,  in  pursuance  of  a  well  regulated 
plan,  survey  and  map  out  every  inch  of  the  ground  run 
over,  while  the  field  notes  and  data  acquired  on  the  ground 
is  simultaneously  arranged  in  all  the  sections. 

The  preliminary  work  for  the  preparation  of  the  General 
Chart  already  covers  over  eighty  sheets  comprising  the 
States  of  Puebla,  Tlaxcala,  nearly  the  whole  State  of 
Veracruz,  Hidalgo,  Mexico,  the  Federal  District,  Morelos, 
Sonora  and  Tamaulipas,  besides  over  thirty  maps  of 
different  townships. 

DEPARTMENT    OF    NATURAL    HISTORY. 

H.  This  department  commenced  its  labor  at  the  close  of 
the  year  187it,  with  one  solitary  engineer.  In  1882,  its 
personnel  was  increased,  being  composed  of  three  naturalist- 
engineers  and  three  assistant  collectors  and  preparers.  Of 
these  six  members,  three  belongc<l  to  the  Department    of 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  103 

Colonization,  Industry  and  Commerce,  and  two  to  the 
chief  special  staff  of  the  Minister  of  War.  In  1884,  the 
department  under  consideration,  was  composed  of  only  one 
naturalist-engineer  and  two  assistants;  the  secretary  was 
therefore  obliged  to  furnish  an  engineer,  and  there  other 
individuals,  in  addition  to  the  Exploring  Commission,  until 
1387,  in  which  year  the  l^iw  governing  the  Estimates  of 
Expenditures  of  the  Federation,  assigned  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Natural  History  one  chief  naturalist,  two  secondary 
naturalists,  an  astronomer,  a  preserver,  three  assistant  col- 
lectors and  preparers,  a  designer,  an  inspecting  and 
preserving  civil  engineer  of  archseological  monuments,  and 
a  war  staff  composed  of  eight  persons.  In  1888,  the 
inspecting  engineer  was  discontinued. 

The  department  was  removed  to  Puebla,  at  which  point 
the  center  of  operations  of  the  Geographical -Exploring 
Commission  had  been  estabhshed,  and  its  labors  were 
extended  to  the  same  zones  in  which  the  preliminary 
sketches  were  being  made,  taking  advantage  of  each  one  of 
the  seasons  of  the  year,  as  might  be  required  by  the  char- 
acter and  diversity  of  their  studies. 

The  department  of  Natural  History,  within  a  short  space 
of  time,  succeeded  in  collecting  and  classifying  an  infinite 
variety  of  rocks  and  minerals,  many  species  of  vegetables 
and  classes  of  woods,  a  large  number  of  insects  of  various 
kinds,  reptiles,  a  rich  assortment  of  birds,  mammals,  fossils, 
a  quantity  of  antiquities  pertaining  to  aboriginal  races  and 
lastly  drew  up  geographical  charts  of  the  places  explored. 
The  geographical  commission  having  been  invited  by 
the  Mexican  New  Orleans  Exposition  Committee  to  make 
known  the  result  of  their  labors  at  the  great  International 
Exhibition,  the  department  decided  to  forward  the  various 
collections  to  the  United  States  in  order  that  they  might 
be  properly  verified,  inasmuch  as  it  was  well-nigh  impossi- 
ble to  do  so  in  this  country,  owing  to  the  lack  of  authorities 


104  THE    KICHES    OF    MEXICO 

-svith  which  to  perform  the  work  of  making  a  library  of 
classifications.  The  articles  failed  to  reach  their  destina- 
tion, having  been  lost  on  the  steamer  City  of  Merida, 
which  was  burned  in  the  Bay  of  Havana,  on  August  29, 
1884. 

The  members  of  the  commission  therefore  determined  to 
make  every  effort  to  replace  the  lost  collections,  and  went 
to  work  with  such  good  will  and  energy,  that  wathin  the 
short  period  of  three  months  they  had  succeeded  in  making 
a  new  collection,  which,  although  somewhat  incomplete, 
figured  conspicuously  among  the  exhibits  of  the  Exposition 
in  question.  The  collection  consisted  of  462  specimens  of 
mammalia  and  birds,  300  of  reptiles  and  fishes,  7,000 
varieties  of  insects,  2,000  classes  of  plants,  and  965 
samples  of  rocks  and  fossils. 

The  faculty  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  Washing- 
ton, furnished  material  assistance  to  the  Mexican  Engineers 
of  the  Department  of  Natural  History,  in  their  work  of 
classifying  many  specimens,  and  in  the  identification  of 
others,  thus  confirming  the  novelty  of  quite  a  number. 

The  Museum  of  the  Commission  was  located  in  Puebla, 
in  a  building  comparatively  small ;  but  as  the  numbers  of 
specimens  secured  by  the  Department  of  Natural  History 
was  somewhat  larger,  and  was  subsequently  increased  by 
the  addition  of  others  presented  by  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tute, together  with  many  more  obtained  by  Mr.  Ferrari 
Perez  through  interchanges  with  various  scientific  institu- 
tions in  the  United  States,  the  Government  decided  on 
March  31,  1886,  to  place  at  the  disposal  of  the  Exploring 
Commission,  a  portion  of  the  ancient  INIilitary  College  of 
Tacubaya,  for  the  establishment  of  its  museum.  The 
articles  forming  the  collections  were  accordingl}'  immedi- 
ately transferred  to  the  new  location,  which  was  formally 
opened  to  the  pul)lic  on  April  2d,  1887.  The  museum 
contains  two  spacious  halls,  in  which  are  placed  to  public 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  105 

view,  and  arranged  in  cases,  woods  and  construction  mate- 
rials, also  specimens  of  zoology,  mineralogy  and  geology, 
scientifically  numbered  and  classified.  The  Department  of 
Natural  History  is  located  in  the  building  occupied  by  the 
museum  in  Tacubaya,  and  possesses  departments  arranged 
for  classification,  exhibition,  and  shops  for  preparing  the 
samples  and  specimens.  Up  to  the  present  writing  explor- 
ations have  been  made  of  isolated  sections  of  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, and,  from  October  to  December,  1886,  in  the 
islands  of  the  coast  of  Campeche. 

STATISTICS. 

III.  At  the  same  time  that  a  study  was  being  made  of 
the  geography  of  the  country,  the  collection  of  general 
statistics  received  a  remarkable  itapetus  from  the  Secretary 
of  Fomentation.  For  the  formation  of  a  bureau  in  this 
interest,  several  measures  were  inaugurated  in  1877  and 
appeals  were  made  to  the  local  authorities  requesting  infor- 
mation concerning  the  value  of  country  and  city  real  estate 
throughout  the  various  States,  as  well  as  detailed  accounts 
relative  to  the  agricultural  products  everywhere  harvested, 
with  a  view  to  compiling  these  statistics  and  classifying 
them  under  different  heads.  An  auxiliary  commission  was 
appointed  to  take  charge  of  the  preliminary  work  in  the 
oflice  of  the  Secretary  of  Fomentation,  to  which  was 
intrusted  the  organization  and  management  of  this  Bureau 
of  Statistics,  the  classification  of  the  different  subjects 
which  it  comprises,  the  place  to  be  assigned  to  communica- 
tions from  abroad  in  such  matters  and,  finally,  a  compara- 
tive study  of  the  proceedings  had  in  other  countries  in  this 
class  of  work. 

The  work  done  in  this  line,  up  to  that  time  was  of  little 
consequence.  Certain  schedules  relating  to  the  census  of 
the  city  of  Mexico  covering  the  years   1875,  1876  and  a 


lU«i  THE   RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

part  of  1877,  were  about  completed;  in  them  the  number 
of  inhabitants  of  each  ward  was  given,  the  permanent  and 
floating  population,  the  mortality  in  the  eight  larger  wards 
into  which  the  city  is  divided,  the  prevalent  diseases  in 
alphabetical  order;  the  deaths,  the  seasons  being  taken  into 
consideration,  as  well  as  the  meteorological  observations,  and 
the  localities  in  which  they  occurred,  as  also  their  classifi- 
cation by  sex,  age,  civil  condition,  etc.  A  beginning  was 
made  also  to  collect  data,  with  a  view  to  making  these 
schedules  embrace  the  entire  Federal  district. 

General  Management  of  the  Bureau  of  /Statistics. 

On  the  26th  of  May,  1882,  a  legal  enactment  was  passed 
establishing  a  general  management  of  the  Bureau  of 
Statistics  in  the  department  of  the  Secretary  of  Fomen- 
tation. This  bureau  is  charged  with  obtaining,  compiling, 
classifying,  and  publishing  periodically,  in  comparative 
schedules,  the  data  pertaining  to  this  branch  of  business. 
The  law  fixes  as  a  basis  for  the  compilation  of  statistics: 
The  census  of  the  nation,  classifying  its  inhabitants  by  sex, 
age,  nationality,  profession,  industry  or  labor  by  Avhich 
they  subsist,  civil  condition  and  if  able  to  read  and  write; 
the  tax  on  farms,  city  real  estate  and  mining  property;  the 
list  of  agricultural  products  and  of  industrial  pursuits,  with 
a  view  to  the  production  and  consumption  of  raw  mate- 
rials; commercial  trade  in  imports  and  exports  and  inter- 
state commerce  ;  a  schedule  of  the  public  schools  and  of 
charitable  institutions ;  public  highways  and  neighboring 
roads,  ship  routes,  telegraphs  and  railroads;  the  adminis- 
tration of  civil  and  criminal  law  ;  religious  worship ;  the 
amount  of  the  public  revenue  ;  the  condition  of  the  army, 
its  expenses,  and  military  and  naval  ))ensions.  In  these 
arrangements,  the  obligation  of  the  State  government  and 
of  the  political,  judicial  and  municiptd  authorities  to  aid  the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  107 

General  Government  in  the  better  fulfillment  of  the  law,  is 
pointed  out,  as  well  as  how  these  functionaries  or  em- 
ployes cannot  excuse  themselves  from  furnishing  the 
statistics  asked  for  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Bureau. 

The  arrano-ement  for  the  organization  of  the  bureau  of 
general  statistics  was  made  on  the  10th  of  June,  1883,  by 
virtue  of  the  memorial  submitted  by  ]Mr.  Penafiel  with  the 
view  that  it  should  serve  as  a  basis  of  application  for  the 
enactment  of  the  26th  of  May,  1882. 

General  Census. —  The  provision  in  reojard  to  this,  pre- 
scribes that  it  should  take  place  every  ten  years,  the  period 
designated  having  always  to  terminate  with  the  figure  zero 
or  the  figure  five.  For  a  recount  of  the  inhabitants,  the 
actual  population  is  to  serve  as  a  basis,  and  this  being  veri- 
fied, the  data  for  the  resident  population  shall  be  obtained. 
The  census  of  each  family  or  home,  should  be  obtained 
nominally,  by  means  of  lists  containing  data  relative 
to  the  members  of  the  family  present  or  absent.  The 
actual  population  of  each  locality  is  established  by  the 
number  of  persons,  minors  or  of  age,  actually  present 
when  the  census  is  taken,  the  traveling  inhabitants  and 
those  to  arrive,  being  taken  into  consideration,  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  their  liability  to  taxation.  Every 
person  present,  in  any  locality  of  the  national  territory 
during  the  day  of  the  census,  without  excepting  any  class 
or  kind,  shall  be  obligated  to  write  his  name  in  the  census 
schedule,  whether  he  has  a  family  or  home,  whether  a 
traveler,  a  resident  of  the  vicinity,  a  non-resident,  a 
foreigner,  a  member  of  the  army,  a  native  of  the  country, 
a  minister  of  worship  or  a  public  ofiicial.  In  regard  to 
absent  parties,  it  shall  simply  be  necessary  to  note  whether 
they  have  a  family  and  if  they  are  casually  absent  from  their 
homes  during  the  day  of  the  census.  The  Mexican  consuls 
shall  collect  data  relative  to  residents  of  Mexico  in  foreign 
countries,  on  the  same  day  that  the  national  census  is  taken* 


108  THE    KICIIES    OF    MEXICO 

The  lists  or  schedules  shall  be  tiled  personally  b}-  the 
head  of  the  family,  or  by  some  one  under  his  direction,  by 
the  chiefs  of  the  military  departments,  the  superintendents 
of  the  prisons  or  -hospitals,  by  the  pr-incipals  of  colleges, 
by  the  owners,  superintendents,  managers  or  heads  of  inns, 
boarding  houses,  hotels,  etc.,  before  the  hour  of  twelve 
o'clock  of  the  day  fixed  for  t'he  census.  Those  without 
any  domicile,  and  every  traveler  without  a  fixed  abode, 
shall,  on  the  evening  of  the  census,  inscribe  his  name  on  the 
list  kept  where  he  may  take  up  his  lodging,  prior  to  noon 
on  the  day  of  the  census.  The  municipal  authorities  col- 
lect the  list  of  each  territorial  division  within  their  jurisdic- 
tion, and  shall  forward  them  to  the  greneral  manager  of  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics  within  a  month,  at  the  farthest,  from 
the  day  designated  for  the  taking  of  the  census,  availing 
themselves  of  the  data  relative  to  the  population  taken  from 
these  lists,  for  the  purpose  of  making  them  known  to  the 
districts,  territory  or  State  to  which  they  may  respectively 
belong,  but,  without  using  the  secret  details  for  determining 
the  civil  condition  of  individuals,  or  for  other  pnrposes  than 
that  of  compiling  the  local  schedule  for  the  resident 
population.  The  data  to  be  noted  with  regard  to  the  move- 
ment of  population,  must  refer  to  births,  marriages  and 
deaths.  The  judges  of  the  ci%'il  tribunals  and  the  ministers 
of  different  worship,  who  take  cognizance  of  the  number 
of  these  incidents  because  of  the  ceremonies  in  which  they 
take  part,  shall  be  obliged  to  submit,  monthly,  to  the 
respective  municipal  authorities,  the  necessar}'  notifications  ; 
all  the  municipalities  of  the  country  shall  remit  them,  each 
month,  to  their  respective  States,  district  and  Federal  ter- 
ritories, and  these,  in  turn,  to  the  general  manager  of  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics. 

Every  foreigner  who  arrives  with  a  view  to  becoming  a 
resident  or  establishing  himself  in  the  Republic,  is  obliged 
to  enter    his   name    upon  the   municipal    sciiedule   of    the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  109 

locality  in  which  he  establishes  himself,  and  to  procure  the 
ticket  of  the  respective  vicinity.  The  superintendents  ot: 
ports  and  municipalities  shall  furnish  information  to  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics,  concerning  the  number  of  immigrants 
and  emigrants,  in  accordance  with  the  printed  schedules 
furnished  to  them  for  that  purpose. 

As  regards  the  branch  relating  to  territory ,  it  comprises 
the  details  of  territorial  division,  physical  description,  geo- 
logical, hydrographical  and  cliraatological  division,  and 
the  topographical  plans  of  the  territory.  These  data  are 
provided  annually  by  the  municipal  authorities,  by  the 
Governors  of  the  States  or  by  commissions  appointed  by 
the  Minister  of  Colonization. 

The  agricultural  census  comprises  information  concern- 
ing the  number  of  estates  adapted  to  cultivation  of  alimen- 
tary, industrial  and  horticultural  plants,  which  grow  in 
each  municipality,  and  also  the  number  of  those  not  under 
cultivation  ;  their  area,  much  or  little  cultivation,  manner 
and  method  of  tilling,  character  of  implements,  cultivation 
by  shares,  the  number  of  farms  rented  out,  the  number  of 
owners  of  cultivated  lands,  the  number  of  renters,  the  kind 
of  products,  woodlands,  their  kinds,  extent  and  preserva- 
tion, cattle,  their  kinds,  wild  animals  and  fish,  raw  and 
liquid  products  of  each  cultivated  farm,  the  unit  of  value 
of  the  dollar  and  the  unit  of  measure  of  each  product ;  the 
price  of  each  hectare  of  laud,  the  number  of  laborers  and 
the  wages  paid  them,  the  annual  yield  of  each  cultivated 
farm,  the  consumption  of  its  products  in  the  home  and 
outside  market. 

The  industrial  census  contains  data  relative  to  the  num- 
ber and  class  of  industrial  establishments,  the  mechanical 
force  employed,  the  fuel  consumed,  the  raw  and  liquid  prod- 
uct of  the  works,  the  prices,  number  of  laborers  and  their 
wages,  the  consumption  of  the  industrial  product  in  the 
market  at  home  and  elsewhere. 


110  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

The  information  relating  to  the  miniiifj  industry,  com- 
prises name  of  the  mineral  or  mineral  district,  that  of  the 
mine  and  its  character,  mines  or  veins  in  development  or 
suspended,  the  output  and  value  of  the  mineral  product, 
the  product  subjected  to  treatment,  its  quantity  and  value, 
the  number  of  mills  not  operated,  the  workmen  employed 
in  the  development  of  the  mine,  the  machinery,  animals, 
the  value  of  the  former  and  the  cost  of  the  latter ;  raw 
materials  consumed  in  the  development  and  in  the  mills,  the 
number  of  employes  and  their  wages,  a  comparison  be- 
tween the  cost  of  production  and  the  revenue  from  the 
work  ;  special  data  relative  to  silver  and  gold,  the  coining 
of  money,  the  assays  of  the  mills  and  mints,  the  importa- 
tion and  exportation  of  mineral  products.  These  data  are 
collected  every  two  years. 

The  information  relative  to  puhlio  instruction,  embraces 
the  public  school  course,  from  the  rudiments  or  the  instruc- 
tion of  children  to  the  professional  degrees,  instruction  in 
the  different  grades  of  these  classes,  and  the  methods  pur- 
sued, whatever  may  be  the  authorities,  bodies  or  individuals 
responsible  for  them.  The  institutions  are  classified  into 
six  groups:  schools  of  primary  and  rudimentary  instruc- 
tion, schools  of  secondary  instruction  or  intermediary  and 
preparatory,  schools  of  the  higher  or  professional  grade, 
special  schools  for  the  blind  and  deaf  mutes ;  schools, 
societies  or  scientific  bodies,  literary  and  artistic.  In  the 
professional  establishments  are  included  law  schools,  notary 
institutionsand  business  colleges,  medical  colleges,  surgery, 
pharmacy  and  oljstetrics,  agricultural  and  veterinar}',  en- 
gineers, assayers  and  metallurgists  ;  schools  of  architecture 
and  construction,  painting,  sculpture  and  engraving,  the 
arts  and  sciences,  commercial  and  business  schools,  con- 
servatories of  music,  elocution,  and  military  and  naval 
academies. 

The    secretaries  of  the   different   Stales   will   furnish  to 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  Ill 

the  manager  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  the  data  relating 
to  national  institutions  and  to  those  of  the  Federal  district 
and  territory  ;  those  relating  to  institutions  maintained  by 
State  funds,  will  be  furnished,  by  the  municipal  authorities, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Governors.  The  managers  of 
primary  and  secondary  educational  establishments,  not 
national,  furnish  in  duplicate,  the  last  day  of  each  year, 
to  the  municipal  authorities  of  its  locality,  the  respective 
information,  in  the  manner  determined  by  the  super- 
intendent. 

Under  the  head  of  matters  relating  to  the  administration 
of  civil  and  criminal  justice^  are  included  the  tribunals  and 
their  judicial  organization  for  civil,  criminal  and  military 
affairs,  the  judges  and  their  salaries,  the  punishments  in- 
flicted, the  employes  connected  with  the  courts.  These 
statistical  data  are  furnished  by  the  Federal  tribunals,  by 
the  tribunals  of  the  State  and  by  the  judges  of  the  first  class. 
Under  the  head  of  data  relating  to  internal  and  foreign 
commerce,  are  comprised  statistics  of  general  trade,  special 
kinds  of  business,  importation  and  exportation  by  sea,  in 
national  or  foreign  ships,  the  country  or  State  where  they 
embark,  and  whither  bound ;  the  quantity  of  goods,  in 
weight,  packages,  measure  or  number ;  the  value  of  imported 
and  exported  articles  as  shown  by  the  invoice  and  also  their 
market  value  ;  the  fiscal  duty  imposed.  The  subordinates 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  the  fiscal  managers  of 
the  several  States,  will  furnish  these  data. 

The  following  are  the  data  relating  to  navigation;  mari- 
time activity,  with  the  arrival  and  departure  of  ships,  their 
nationality,  tonnage  and  crew,  the  passengers  and  freight 
they  carry  and  details  relating  to  subsidized  vessels.  The 
data  relating  to  the  national  marine,  shall  comprise :  the 
number,  class  and  crew  of  national  vessels ;  the  subordinates 
of  the  Secretaries  of  the  Treasury,  War  and  Navy  will 
furnish  these  data. 


112  THE    KICllES    OF    MEXICO 

The  department  of  revenue  will  be  limited  to  informa- 
tion relatnij;  to  tuxes  and  the  amount  of  the  fiscal  revenue 
and  the  revenue  of  the  different  States,  the  municipal 
revenues  being  separated  from  those  which  properly  be- 
long: to  the  State  or  nation. 

The  data  relating  to  the  administrative  departments  are: 
the  diplomatic  and  consular  bodies,  a  list  of  foreigners, 
their  nationality  and  civil  condition  ;  births,  marriages  and 
deaths  of  Mexican  citizens  in  foreign  countries  ;  consular 
advices  relative  to  imports  and  exports;  appropriations  and 
general  expenses  ;  the  public  debt  at  home  and  abroad  ; 
the  army  and  its  organization,  its  expenses  and  soldiers' 
pensions ;  the  formation  and  instruction  of  the  army  and 
navy;  colonization,  highways,  telegraphs,  telephones  and 
railroads  :  lighthouses  and  meteorology  ;  police  and  public 
peace  ;  post-offices  and  their  organization ;  offices  of  the 
civil  registrar  ;  the  amount  of  business  transacted  by  the 
public  registrar  of  realty  and  transactions  of  the  notarial 
department;  financial  and  charitable  institutions,  prisons 
and  asylums,  appropriations,  expenses  and  revenues  of  the 
States,  their  militia  force,  public  works  and  by-roads. 
The  Secretaries  and  Governors  of  the  States  shall  furnish 
these  data  every  four  months. 

An  auxiliary  branch  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  is  estab- 
lished in  each  municipality,  composed  of  the  chief  munici- 
pal representative,  a  person  elected  from  amongst  the  most 
prominent  residents  of  the  locality  and  a  professor  of 
primary  instruction  in  the  same  place.  This  commission 
shall  be  obliged  to  aid  the  local  authority  in  all  the  work  of 
collecting  data.  In  the  capitals  of  the  States,  the  com- 
missions shall  be  composed  of  an  agent  ai>pointcd  by  the 
Secretary  of  Public  Works  and  two  others  to  bo  designated 
by  the  Governor  of  the  State,  and,  in  their  case,  by  the 
Governor  of  the  District  and  the  corresponding  dignitaries 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  113 

of  the  Federal  territory.  Ail  Federal  employes  shall  be 
agents  of  the  bureau  for  the  collection  of  statistics. 

The  Secretary  of  Fomentation  can  do  honor  to  those 
persons  who  indicate  a  special  aptitude  for  statistical  work, 
by  conferring  upon  them  diplomas  or  gold  or  silver  medals, 
according  to  the  merit  they  have  displayed.  The  data  or 
statistical  information,  shall.be  entered  in  schedules  or  lists 
in  triplicate,  one  of  which  shall  be  forwarded  to  the  capitals 
of  the  States  for  the  first  compilation,  another  for  the 
bureau  of  general  statistics  and  the  third  to  be  reserved  in 
case  of  loss,  or  repetition  of  the  same  work.  Such  are 
the  principal  provisions  contained  in  the  regulations  organ- 
izinof  the  work  of  general  statistics  in  Mexico. 

In  1883,  the  national  Hygienic  Congress,  in  fixing  the 
basis  for  the  organization  of  the  department  relative  to  the 
movement  of  population,  classified  maladies  to  be  listed  in 
the  mortality  schedules,  for  the  medical  branch  of  the 
bureau  of  statistics  ;  laid  down  rules  of  classification  for  the 
data  on  mortality,  prescribed  the  requisites  of  a  medical 
certificate  in  cases  of  death  and  of  registration  of  births, 
marriages  and  burials. 

CARTOGRAPHY. 

IV.  As  has  been  said,  in  1877  there  were  commenced  by 
the  Secretary  of  Fomentation  the  labors  directed  towards 
the  study  of  the  necessities,  situation  and  the  relation  of 
the  localities  of  the  country,  as  a  means  of  providing,  with 
better  success,  for  the  improvement  of  the  different 
branches  of  the  government.  By  the  first  attempts,  an 
improvement  of  the  geographical  maps  and  a  correction  of 
the  statistical  data,  were  secured. 

A  commission  of  engineers  was  appointed  in  January  of 
the  same  year  which  devoted  itself  to  presenting,  in  cata- 
logue fornd,  the  geographical  position,  plans  and  maps  of 


114  THE    KICIIES    OF    MEXICO 

road^  and  cities,  itiueiaries  and  other  reliable  documents 
now  existing.  The  plan  was  discussed  which  should  be 
followed  in  a  new  class  of  work,  the  vast  extent  of  the 
country  being'  taken  into  account,  the  competent  service 
which  might  be  secured,  and  the  possibility  of  increasing  it 
with  auxiliary  forces. 

At  last  a  plan  was  adopted  that  could  lead  to  immediate 
results,  consisting  in  the  designation  of  astronomical  locali- 
ties on  the  route  of  all  telegraph  roads  of  the  Republic, 
which  would  serve  as  a  basis  for  reducing  to  a  systematic 
whole  the  data  obtained,  and  as  a  foundation  upon  which 
the  subsequent  topographical  work  may  rest.  This  sys- 
tem would  be  aided  by  the  designation  of  other  points  for 
the  purpose  of  chronometry,  on  the  roads  running  at  right 
angles  to  the  telegraph  lines. 

It  being  now  time  to  begin  field  engineering,  an  appeal 
was  made  to  Congress  on  the  15th  of  November,  1877, 
asking  that  the  President  be  authorized  to  re-establish 
exploration  commissions  charged  with  the  collection  of 
geographical  and  statistical  data. 

It  was  then  that  the  movement  was  initiated  to  send 
commissions  to  make  a  scientific  study  of  the  country,  a 
movement  with  which  the  Secretary  of  Fomentation  and 
Secretary  of  War  placed  themselves  in  harmony,  by  send- 
ing other  mixed  commissions  of  civil  and  military  surveyors 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  size  of  the  force,  as  well 
as  to  foster  military  studies  by  the  formation  of  a  strategic 
body,  essentially  practical. 

The  cartographical  commission,  organized  in  said  year 
of  1877,  displayed,  from  the  first,  an  assiduity  deserving  of 
praise,  as  it  organized  and  arranged  the  necessary  details 
of  the  work,  in  four  mouths;  traced  the  outlines  on  thirty- 
five  sheets,  formulating  at  the  same  time,  a  plan  for  the 
necessary  publications.  The  sketches  of  the  work  done  in 
the  Valley  of  Mexico,  as  well  as  those  relating  to  Tehuan- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  115 

tepee,  were  reduced  to  u  scale  1:100,000  and  1:500,000 
respectively,  and  to  2:000,000  the  four  sheets  which  were 
completed  and  printed  in  1877. 

The  general  administrative  itinerary  mai^  recently  com- 
pleted, fixed  the  different  localities  in  which  are  to  be 
found  the  principal  and  subordinate  managements  of  the 
customs  post-offices,  heads  of  the  treasury  department, 
banks,  etc.  It  is  made  on  the  scale  1:200,000  and  divided 
into  nine  parts  ;  the  map  of  "  Exploration  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Tehuantepec"  originally  prepared  by  the  commission  in- 
trusted with  the  study  of  the  ground,  on  a  scale  of 
1  :250,000  with  reference  to  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  ; 
the  cartographic  department,  relating  it  to  the  meridian  of 
Mexico,  by  reducing  it  to  a  scale  of  1 :  500,000.  The  ' '  Topo- 
sraphical  chart  of  the  neighborhood  of  Puebla,"  has  been 
made  and  drawn  by  this  department,  advantage  having 
been  taken  of  the  labors  of  the  geographic  exploring  party. 
This  map  is  made  in  nine  pieces.  The  "  Telegraphic  and 
Railroad  Chart "  prepared  under  the  instructions  of  Minister 
Eiva  Palacio  to  facilitate  the  study  of  the  different  railroad 
concessions,  telegraph  lines  and  routes  of  maritime  com- 
munication, contains  the  communities  which  the  projected 
roads  traverse,  the  lighthouses  in  the  different  harbors  and 
the  meteorological  stations. 

All  these  data  came  into  service  for  the  "  General  Geo- 
graphic Chart  of  the  Republic,"  ordered  made  in  1881,  by 
Mr.  Fernandez  Leal,  at  that  time  performing  the  duties  of 
the  Secretary  of  Public  Works.  The  astronomical  posi- 
tions which  had  been  fixed  from  the  several  capitals  of 
the  States,  and  those  determined  by  the  boundary  commis- 
sions of  Guatemala  and  the  United  States  and  the  charts 
of  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  of  part  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  arranged  by  the  American  Marine  service, 
reduced  to  a  scale  of  1:300,000,  were  also  materials 
which  served  for  the  preparation  of   the  general  map  to 


116*  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

which  we  are  rofeiring  and  which  was  published  in  the  year 
1883. 

Several  works  are  about  to  be  completed  in  the  carto- 
graphical department, namely:  another  general  geographical 
chart  of  the  Republic;  a  complete  map  of  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict containing  the  most  recent  data  and  a  hydrographic 
chart.  The  cartographic  department  is  composed  of  a  man- 
aging engineer, three  principal  draughtsmen,  two  assistants 
and  two  pupils. 

OBSERVATORIES. 

V.  There  are  several  observatories  in  the  Republic,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  principal  ones  : 

Tlie  Central  Magnetic  Meteorological  Observatoi'i/ . 

Its  erection  was  determined  upon  on  the  8th  of  February, 
1877,  at  the  instance  of  General  Vicente  Riva  Palacio,  then 
Secretary  of  Public  Works.*  It  was  erected  on  the  roof  of 
the  national  palace,  under  the  direction  of  architect 
Vicente  E.  Manero  and  the  physical  studies  were  undertaken 
on  the  Gth  of  March  following,  by  the  first  exploring  geo- 
grajihical  commission.  In  1880  Engineer  Manuel  Fernandez 
Leal,  Assistant  Secretary  of  Public  Works,  obtained  special 
aid  from  Congress  for  the  observatory,  granting  it  a  special 
portion  of  the  appropriation,  it  having  been  maintained  up 
to  that  time  by  the  resources  of  the  commission  already 
mentioned. 

Its  force  consisted  of  a  manager,  Mr.  Mariano  Bdrcena, 
one  principal  expert,  four  assistants  and  telegraph  op- 
erator. 

To  better  advance  the  practical  study  of  meteorological 
science,  the  Secretary  of  Public  Works  appealed  to  the  higher 


•  Now  of  "Fomentation,  Colonization,  Industry  and  Commerce.' 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  117 

authorities  of  tnc  States,  requesting  them  to  appoint  com- 
petent persons  to  make  observations  of  the  atmospheric 
phenomena  in  connection  with  the  Central  Observatory,  for 
which  purpose  the  hitter  formuhited  and  distributed  the 
requisite  informations  to  the  official  establishments  of  public 
instruction,  individuals  and  persons,  who,  by  reason  of 
their  scientific  education,  were  qualified  for  such  observa- 
tions. Some  Governors,  to  properly  respond  to  the  request, 
determined  to  erect  official  observatories,  or  increase  the 
number  of  those  in  existence.  In  this  manner  the  Governors 
of  San  Luis  Potosi,  Zacatecas,  Puebla,  Guanajuato, 
Queretaro,  Oaxaca  and  Mexico,  lent  their  co-operation. 
An  astronomical  and  meteorological  observatory  was 
ordered  built  by  the  Secretary  of  Public  Works  in  the  port 
of  Mazatlan,  Sinaloa. 

There  are  at  present  eleven  official  and  eleven  private 
stations  in  the  country.  The  first  are  sustained  by  the 
States  in  which  they  are  located  and  the  attaches  perform 
the  duties  without  extraordinary  compensation,  the  service 
of  the  latter  is  rendered  by  the  individuals  interested,  with- 
out any  remuneration.  The  Secretary  of  Fomentation 
pays  for  the  services  of  the  Mazatlan  Observatory,  and 
also  aids  the  other  auxiliary  institutions,  by  the  distribu- 
tion of  instruments  through  the  Central  Observatory. 

His  co-operation  was  also  asked  on  behalf  of  the  heads 
of  departments  and  the  employes  of  the  Federal  telegraph 
offices  and  telegraphic  corporations,  for  the  daily  compara- 
tive study  of  atmospheric  phenomena.  The  corresponding 
observatories  and  the  Central,  began  to  communicate  their 
observations  to  each  other  by  means  of  the  telegraph,  the 
information  concerning  the  condition  of  the  weather  in  the 
respective  localities,  being  transmitted  daily  and  the 
schedule  of  daily  observations  with  relation  to  the  instruc- 
tions published  by  the  office  at  the  capital,  being  submitted 
monthly.     Thus  it  was,  that  in  a    few  months,  after  the 


118  TIIK    IMCIIES    UF    MKXICO 

inauijuration  ot"  the  service,  :i  meteorological  foreign  system 
was  fully  established. 

The  installation  of  the  Central  Observatory  was  made 
known  to  nearly  all  the  observatories,  academies  and  scien- 
tific societies  of  America,  Europe,  Asia,  Africa  and  Oceania, 
and  an  international  service  was  immediately  started,  which 
accepted  the  invitation  given  at  the  beginning  of  April,  to 
take  part  in  the  international  meteorological  observations, 
to  be  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  International 
Congress  of  Meteorologists,  and  to  take  place  in  Vienna  in 
1873.  From  the  first  of  May,  1877,  the  office  made  obser- 
vations of  atmospheric  conditions,  without  interruption,  at 
the  same  instant,  in  which  they  are  made  in  Washington, 
Paris,  Greenwich,  Vienna  and  in  nearly  all  the  observatories 
of  the  first  class  in  the  Avorld.  The  corresponding  hour 
for  these  observations  in  Mexico  is  5  :32  in  the  morning. 
In  several  States  of  the  Republic  the  same  observations  are 
made  and  the  uniform  results  are  published  in  the  bulletins 
of  the  Signal  Service  department  in  Washington,  for  circu- 
lation throughout  the  entire  world. 

In  the  vast  field  of  study  embraced  Ijy  the  observatory, 
is  included  the  greater  part  of  many  prol)lems  of  atmos- 
pheric conditions  in  relation  to  climatology,  public  health, 
mortality  and  changes  in  population  ;  for  which  work  the 
co-operation  of  the  public  registrars  and  of  the  principal 
hospitals,  was  sought  and  secured. 

In  the  observatory,  observations  are  made  every  hour 
during  the  day  and  night,  and  the  data  obtained  in  the 
office  and  those  sent  in  by  those  co-o))erating  elsewhere,  arc 
calculated,  discussed,  ai'rangod  and  i)riiited.  Observations 
are  made  of  the  thermometer,  psicrometer,  anemoscoj>e, 
ozonometer  and  especially  of  the  condition  of  the  heavens. 
The  hourly  changes  of  the  temperature  ot  the  water  are 
noted;  barometric  observations  are  made  every  quarter  of 
an  hour  at  the  approach  of  the  tropical  hours  and  study  is 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  119 

made  of  atmosphcru"  utoius  wafted  by  different  winds  which 
blow  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico;  of  the  niicography  applicable 
to  the  same  seismographic  studies  of  actinonietry,  atmos- 
pheric electricity,  etc. 

The  observatory  is  always  open  to  the  public  ;  it  decides 
questions  submitted  to  it  in  matters  included  in  its  field 
of  operation  ;  examines,  gratuitously,  the  instruments  sub- 
mitted to  it  for  such  purpose;  it  furnishes,  m  detail,  all 
the  data  collected  by  it  relating  to  meteorology  and  its  ap- 
plication, and  sends  information  daily  to  the  press,  hospi- 
tals and  drug  stores  of  the  capital. 

From  the  time  of  its  inauguration,  the  observatory  has 
issued  publications  of  importance,  among  which  should  be 
mentioned  those  relating  to  the  periodical  observation  of  the 
phenomena  of  vegetable  life  in  connection  with  meteorolog- 
ical chanofes.     With  these  data,  the  Botanical  Calendar  is 
composed,  which  has  appeared  monthly  since  July,  1877,  in 
the  Bulletin  of  the  Ministry  of  Public    Works.     In  this  is 
observed,  the  inception,  the  culmination  and  the  decadence 
of  florescence  of    many  plants,  wild  and  domestic,  of  the 
Vallev  of  Mexico,  and  the  dates  are  indicated  on  which  the 
crops  are    planted  and    harvested,  the  appearance  of  the 
growing  crops,  the  dates  on  which  the  foliage  of  trees  falls 
and  buds,  and  on  which  the  lield  grass  springs  into  life. 
The    observatory    publishes,    besides:    Tlie   Meteorological 
Bulletin   of  the   Central   Observatory    in  which  the  labors 
performed  by  this  institution  are  technically  and  minutely 
explained:    The  Monthly  Meteorological  Revieio,  which  con- 
tains, in  epitome,  the  comparative  data  of  the   observatory 
and  corresponding  sections:    The    Monthly   Climatological 
Revieio  which  was  first  published  in   January,     1881,    to 
make  known  the  data  collected  by  the  telegraph  operators 
and  civil  registrars:    The  Weather  Bulletin,  ^v'lih.  t\\e  daily 
account  of   the  meteorological  conditions  observed  in  the 
different  localities  of  the  country. 


120  THE    niCHES    OF    MEXICO 

The  engineers  of  the  observatories  have  prepared 
and  published  the  following:  A  Table  to  reduce  to  0'' 
the  Barometric  pressure  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  and 
in  all  localities  which  may  be  subject  to  the  same  mod- 
erate pressure  :  Tlie  Meteorological  TelegrapJiic  Key  which 
facilitates  and  secures  uniformity  in  the  daily  transmis- 
sion of  foreign  observations;  The  Tables  for  Hygro- 
metrical  Calculations:  The  Barometric  Tables  relatins: 
to  the  correction  and  application  of  barometric  science, 
applied  to  all  the  altitudes  of  the  Eepublic  ;  Studies  of 
Comimrative  Meteorology,  in  four  volumes,  in  which  are 
discussed  the  data  of  the  central  observatory  in  comparison 
with  those  of  the  corresponding  Mexican  stations  and  with 
those  of  foreign  observatories  that  may  have  forwarded 
their  observations;  The  Psycrometric  Tables,  prepared  for 
the  Valley  of  Mexico,  and  the  necessary  corrections  to  make 
them  applicable  to  any  other  altitude  within  the  limits  of 
the  Republic;  The  Colorations  of  the  Heavens,  a  work  in 
which  are  discussed  the  different  hypotheses  concerning  the 
twilight  colorations  which  have  attracted  universal  attention 
since  the  year  1883;  and,  finally,  A  Catalogue  of  Meteors 
prepared  in  the  observatory  during  several  years. 

The  Central  Observatory  is  in  communication  with  the 
larger  part  of-  the  observatories  and  academies  of  the  world 
to  be  found  in  the  following  nations :  United  States, 
Central  America,  South  America,  Cuba,  Sweden,  Norway, 
Denmark,  Russia,  Holland,  Germany,  Switzerland, Belgium, 
France,  Italy,  Portugal,  Spain,  England,  Greece,  Turkey, 
Egypt,  several  islands  of  Asia,  China,  Japan,  Australia, 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Austria,  Ireland, 
Roumania  and  Africa.  The  number  of  institutions  with 
which  the  observatory  conducts  a  correspondence  is,  375  in 
foreign  lands  and  488  domestic  institutions,  making  a  total 
of  8(>3. 

The   ))riii('ipal   iiistruincuts    in    use,   are:    f)aroineters  of 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  121 

different  systems,  l>arographic  instruments,  thermometers 
showing  the  highest  and  the  lowest  conditions,  ther- 
mometers of  sohir  radiation,  terrestrial  and  centesimal, 
in  large  numbers;  electric  termographs,  psycrometers, 
actiuometers,  anemometers,  aneraometrograph,  anemos- 
copes, instruments  for  the  study  of  atmospheric  cor- 
puscules,  including  photomicrography,  pluviometers, 
atmometers,  ozonometers,  cianometers,  photometers,  elec- 
trometers; apparatus  for  earthquakes,  seismographs, 
meteorograph  of  P.  Secchi,  with  all  their  accessories; 
magnetometer,  polar  and  solar  compasses,  chronometers, 
catetometer,  a  binocular  microscope,  astronomical  telescope, 
theodolites,  terrestrial  and  celestial  globe,  instruments  for 
dividing  the  sun's  rays,  a  galvanometer.  It  possesses,  be- 
sides, a  telegraph  office  with  all  its  equipments.  The 
instruments  represent  in  their  present  condition,  a  capital 
of  more  than  $9,000. 

The  library  of  the  office  contains  more  than  2,000 
volumes,  the  greater  part  of  which  has  been  otained  from 
the  observatories,  academies  and  professors  entertaining 
relations  with  the  observatory,  in  exchange  for  the  services 
rendered  to  them  by  the  observatory. 

The  general  government  has  allowed  for  its  maintenance 
the  sum  of  $11,797.50,  annually. 
27*6  Meteorological  Astronomical  Observatory  of  Mazatlan. 

This  was  established  through  the  agency  of  the  Secretary 
of  Public  Works  in  the  year  1879.  The  building  was 
erected  at  the  expense  of  the  national  treasury  on  an  arti- 
ficial esplanade  on  the  summit  of  the  mountain  known  as 
Vigla.  The  scientific  work  was  begun  on  the  loth  of  May 
of  the  same  year,  1879,  under  the  direction  of  engineer 
Fiacro  Quijano. 

From  that  date  the  first  international  simultaneous  ob- 
servation is  made  daily  at  5  h.  02  m.  00  s.  and  a  list  is  sent 
monthly  to  the  observatory  at   Washington,  at  the  same 


122  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

time  as  to  the  Central  of  Mexico.  The  meteorological 
daily  service  receives  attention  at  seven  o'clock  a.  ni.,  two 
o'clock  p.  ni.  and  nine  o'clock  p.  m.  and  on  several  other 
occasions  during  the  day  and  during  a  part  of  the  night,  and 
an  account  of  these  is  also  forwarded  monthly  to  the  Cen- 
tral Meteorological  Observatory,  and  the  details  of  the  day 
preceding  daily,  by  telegraph.  For  the  weather  predic- 
tions, the  greatest  number  of  observations  possible  is  made 
during  the  day  and  night  at  the  approach  of  storms,  75  per 
cent  of  the  predictions  being  verified. 

The  Observatory  of  ]\Iazatlan  is  also  charged  with  the 
study  of  the  tides  Ijy  means  of  the  mareograph,  an  auto- 
matic instrument  presented  by  the  "  coast  survey  "  of  the 
United  States  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  greater  num- 
ber of  data  to  compare  with  those  furnished  by  this  class 
of  service,  as  organized  in  the  North  American  ports. 

The  ai)paratus  was  put  in  j^osition  in  December,  1870  ; 
the  lists  are  forwarded  monthly  to  the  American  office  and 
to  the  management  of  the  Port  of  Mazatlan. 

In  November  of  1879,  a  code  of  meteorological  signals 
was  adopted,  for  the  prediction,  as  near  as  possible,  of 
weather  probabilities. 

The  astronomical  labors  of  the  observatory  are  directed 
to  a  calculation  of  time  by  means  of  solar  and  stellar 
meridians,  whereby  is  announced  daily,  by  means  of  a  bell, 
the  noon  hour,  for  the  regulation  of  the  clocks  in  the  bay. 
The  relative  geographical  conditions  of  the  observatory 
and  the  lisht-house  have  been  determined;  observations 
were  made  of  the  transit  of  Venus  b}'  means  of  the  solar 
disc  on  the  6th  of  January,  1882,  and  of  the  cometof  1884 
on  the  l!)th  and  21stof  January;  as  well  as  other  important 
observations. 

The  instruments  necessary  for  tiic  performance  of  its 
Wf)rk,  were  donated  to  the  observatory  at  the  time  of  its 
installation;    barometers,   psycrometers,    thermometers    of 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  123 

the  greatest  and  least  power,  thcrnionieters  of  Fahrenheit 
and  centigrade,  anemoscope,  anemometer,  instruments 
with  which  to  measure  the  amount  of  the  evaporation  of 
water,  in  the  shade  and  in  the  open  air,  and  a  pluviometer. 
It  also  possesses  a  transit  telescope  of  31  inches  focal 
distance,  three  of  a  clear  objective  opening,  with  a  microm- 
ter  having  an  adjustable  rim  for  the  eye.  Attached  to  the 
telescope  is  a  vertical  ring  of  six  inches  in  diameter,  and 
an  adjustable  pivot  with  the  geometrical  ruler,  which  the 
verniers  contain  and  which  ap[)r()ximate  angles  of  10"  and 
10".  It  has  contrivances  for  elevating  the  upper  portion 
of  the  instrument  and  its  supports,  180*^  above  the  lower 
portion  (placa).  There  are  also  in  the  observatory,  an 
American  marine  chronometer  of  the  manufacture  of  Negus, 
N.  Y.  For  the  observation  of  Venus,  an  equatorial  was 
purchased  in  1882  from  William  Gregy,  New  York,  of 
2  m.  30  s.  focal  distance  and  of  an  amplifying  diameter  of 
70.  In  1884,  there  were  obtained  from  the  Central  Observ- 
atories of  Astronomy  and  Meteorology,  an  altazimut  of  10 
inches  in  diameter  in  the  horizontal  and  vertical  tubes,  with 
an  approximation  of  10  seconds,  and  of  the  make  of 
Troughton  and  Simms;  a  small  cubic  barometer,  six  free 
thermometers,  one  of  the  largest  and  one  of  the  smallest 
calculating  strength;  a  psycrometer  and  an  anemometer; 
all  of  a  decimal  calculation  and  of  the  make  of  Negritti 
and  Zambra. 

In  addition  to  these  meteorological  and  astronomical 
instruments,  the  observatory  has  a  telephone  and  signal 
outfit  with  which  the  watch  announces  vessels  that  appear 
in  sight  and  signals  the  weather  probabilities  as  made  known 
by  the  observatory.  The  library  of  the  oflice  is  not  very 
large  but  contains  national  and  foreign  works  of  merit. 
The  officers  consists  of  a  manager,  an  assistant  and  an 
office  boy.  It  receives  a  government  appropriation  of 
$4,064.30  annually. 


124  THE    KICHES    OF    BIEXICO 


THE    NATIONAL    ASTRONOMICAL    OBSERVATORY    OF    TACUBAYA. 

The  idea  of  constructing  a  uational  observatory  in  Cha- 
pultepec  was  suggested  iu  the  year  1842  by  General  Pedro 
Garcia  Conde  ;  some  appropriate  work  was  done  la  the 
locality  and  instructions  were  sent  to  Europe  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  three  large  instruments,  a  meridian  telescope, 
an  astronomical  pendent  and  an  equatorial,  at  a  cost  of 
$10,000. 

Scarcely  had  the  new  administration,  resulting  from  the 
revolution  of  Tuxtepec,  been  inaugurated,  when  it  was  ar- 
ranged that  the  palace  of  Chapultepec  should  be  used  as  a 
national  astronomical  observatory,  and,  in  elfect,  Engineer 
Angel  Anguiano  was  commissioned  to  prepare  designs. 
These  being  presented  and  approved,  the  work  of  construc- 
tion was  begun  on  the  16th  of  May,  1877.  The  inauguration 
of  the  observator}'  took  place  on  the  5th  of  May,  1878,  and 
the  first  astronomical  work  was  undertaken,  which  consisted 
in  the  geographical  location  of  the  establishment.  The 
meteorological  list  was  arranged  in  June  of  the  same  year. 

In  1882  the  Government  resolved  totrani^ferthc  observa- 
tor}'  from  Chapultepec  to  Tacubaya.  With  this  view,  the 
afore-mentioned  Mr.  Anguiano,  presented  a  design  of  an 
observatory,  which  was  also  accepted.  This  was  to  be 
constructed  in  the  center  of  the  garden  belonging  to  the  old 
Archbishopric  of  Tacubaya,  then  occupied  by  the  military 
college.  The  work  of  construction  was  begun  in  October 
of  1882. 

After  the  observation  in  Chapultepec  of  the  transit  of 
Venus  throujrh  the  sun's  disc  on  December  the  Oth  of  that 
year,  the  work  of  dismounting  and  transferring  the  instru- 
ments to  Tacubaya  was  begun,  and  in  a  few  months  they 
were  arranged  there  temporarily.  The  observatory  resumeil 
its  interrui)ted  scientific  labors  in  September,  1883,  contiuu- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  125 

ing  them  up  to  the  present  regularly  and  without  interrup- 
tion. 

The  studies  undertaken  in  this  establishment,  since  its 
installation,  are  innumerable.  Its  meteorological  observa- 
tions were  at  first  made  three  times  a  day,  as  well  as  the 
observations  of  the  conditions  of  the  barometer  and  of  the 
wet  and  dry  thermometer;  daily  indications  of  the  highest 
and  lowest  temperature  and  of  the  pluviometer.  Subse- 
quently the  observations  were  made  hourly  from  7a.m.  till  9 
p.  m.  because  of  the  necessity  for  obtaining  certain  indispen- 
sable meteorological  data  for  the  improvement  of  astronom- 
ical calculations.  At  present,  the  ordinary  observations 
are  made  from  7  a.  m.  12  p.  m.  and  9  p.  m.,  as  well  as 
those  of  the  elevation  and  inclination  of  the  magnetic  needle. 
Important  studies  have  been  made,  with  a  view  to  examining 
the  variations  that  might  take  place  in  the  measurement  of 
horizontal  angles,  and  in  relation  to  the  variations  of  the 
level,  changes  of  time,  and  of  full  moons. 

Observations  have  been  made  with  sufficiently  satisfac- 
tory success  of  the  transit  of  Venus  through  the  solar  disc, 
in  1882  ;  a  solar  eclipse  on  the  16th  of  May,  1883  ;  the 
appearance  of  a  periodical  comet  in  January,  1884;  an 
annular  eclipse  of  the  sun  on  March  16,  1885;  the  planet 
Eucrates,  in  1889,  and  the  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  on  the 
22nd  of  December  of  the  same  year,  by  means  of  two 
commissions  sent  to  Progreso  (State  of  Yucatan)  and  to 
Charcas  (State  of  San  Luis  Potosi),  respectively. 

On  the  10th  of  January,  1891,  the  observatory  assumed 
the  task  of  determining  the  position  of  stars,  which  might 
serve  for  reference  in  their  locations  to  verify  the  photo- 
graphic chart  of  the  heavens  in  the  zone  embraced  by  the 
observatory,  which  is  from  10°  to  16°.  These  data  are 
published  in  the  Bulletin  under  the  name  of  "Meridian 
Observations  for  the  Formation  of  a  Catalogue  of  Stars  ia 
the  Observatory  of  Tacubaya." 


126  Tin:  riches  of  Mexico 

The  rirst  Anmiul  of  the  observatoiy,  was  given  to  the 
press  in  1881,  containing  exj)hinatory  articles  on  several 
subjects;  tables  for  the  solution  of  practical  astronomical 
problems:  meteorological  observations  made  in  the  office 
during  the  year  ;  geographical  locations  of  certain  parts  of 
the  Republic  approved  by  the  observatory,  either  because 
of  being  its  own  work,  or  because  of  the  authenticity  of 
their  sources  and  the  means  employed  in  securing  them; 
data  relative  to  the  change  of  signals,  by  commissions  or 
persons  making  and  forwarding  them  ;  a  calendar ;  the 
report  which  the  manager  of  the  observatory.  Angel 
Anguiano,  submits  annually  to  the  Secretary  of  Public 
Works,  relative  to  the  work  done  in  the  establishment,  and 
many  other  details  and  information  of  interest  in  fostering 
astronomical  science. 

The  Bulletin  is  another  semi-monthly  publication 
issued  by  the  observatory.  Its  purpose  is  to  make  known 
the  work  done  in  the  office;  it  publishes  original  articles, 
translations  or  comi)ilations  of  important  astronomical 
work;  information  concerning  the  discoveries  and  progress 
of  astronomical  science,  etc.,  etc.  ;  and  it  contains  besides, 
a  list  of  meridian  observations  with  the  date  on  which  they 
were  made,  the  name  of  the  star  observed,  its  transit  through 
the  middle  line,  a  corrected  transit,  the  just  ascent  of  the 
star  and  the  error  of  the  pendent  and  its  progress.  Its 
publication  was  begun  on  January,  1890. 

The  following  are  the  most  notable  instruments  of  the 
observatory:  a  larrte  equatorial  which  has  an  aperture  of 
0"  38  ;  the  total  length  of  the  cylinder  is  5'"40;  the  height, 
from  the  pavement  of  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  polar 
needle  with  that  of  declination  is  3'"28  ;  the  foundation  is 
of  wrought  iron.  The  examination  of  the  orbs  of  inclina- 
tion and  just  elevation  is  made  by  means  of  a  single  tele- 
scope and  this  is  lighted  by  a  combination  of  prisms. 

For  small  movements  in  a    direct    elevation,  there  is  a 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  127 

mechanism  in  one  of  the  cog-wheels  which  operates  the 
clock  movement.  The  instrument  contains  five  glasses  of 
different  amplifying  power,  of  200,  360,  750  and  1,000 
diameters.  It  was  manufactured  by  Grubb,  in  Dublm, 
and  its  total  cost  in  Mexico  was  $13,000. 

A  Meridian  Compass  with  an  aperture  0^203  and 
2'"74,  focal  distance  ;  it  has  a  vertical  compass  on  each  side 
of  0'"91  in  diameter;  it  is  supported  on  iron  with  a  lower 
mechanism  for  the  lesser  movements  of  the  altazimut,  and 
to  easily  locate  the  instrument  in  the  meridian  ;  it  has  two 
telescopes  of  an  objective  opening  of  0^15  ;  its  cost  is 
$10,000. 

A  Transit  Telescope  of  Estel,  of  an  objective  aperture 
of  O'^US. 

An  English  Photoheliogi'aph  with  an  objective  aperture 
0"U0  of  Dalmeyer's  make.     It  cost  $4,000. 

A  Small  Equatorial  with  an  objective  aperture  of  O'" 
15,  of  Grubb' s  make. 

A  Photographic  Equatorial  manufactured  specially,  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  International 
Congress  of  1887,  whereby  the  observatory  was  to  take 
part  in  the  photographic  preparation  of  a  chart  of  the 
heavens. 

A  Large  Altazimut  intended  specially  for  the  correction 
of  the  pendent  and  for  a  study  of  the  sun  spots,  use  being 
made  of  the  chronograph.  It  is  of  the  English  make  of 
Troughton  and  Simms  with  an  aperture  of  0"^038  and  a 
focal  distance  of  0™85  ;  the  azimut  compass  measures  0™ 
61,  the  vertical  0'"59;  the  micrometric  telescopes  approxi- 
mate 1".  The  eye-glass  has  two  micrometric  screws,  the 
one  horizontal,  which  moves  the  mounting  of  the  reticule 
and  the  other,  perpendicular  to  the  former,  which  moves  a 
horizontal  bar. 

Several  Marine  Chronometers;  a  pendent  of  median 
time  with  the  corrections  and  adjuncts  necessary  to  furnish 


128  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO. 

the  time  to  the  public  clocks.  Two  chronographs,  one 
large  cylindrical,  and  the  other  de  lira. 

A  Spectroscope  which  has  five  prisQis  situated  in  a  circu- 
lar mounting,  and  which  contains  in  its  two  faces  the  two 
objective  adaptations  of  the  synthetical  and  analytical  tele- 
scope, in  front  of  which  is  fixed  a  prism.  The  mounting 
IS  articulated  and  by  means  of  springs  and  chains  which  coil 
and  uncoil  themselves  on  an  axis,  can  increase  and  diminish 
their  diameter  and  convert  the  faces  of  the  prisms  into  dif- 
ferent angles  by  means  of  the  luminous  surface.  When 
this  reaches  the  lust  prism,  it  is  reflected  inwardly  twice 
and  then  passes,  by  means  of  the  same  prisms,  to  the  analy- 
tical telescope. 

Finally,  among  many  other  instruments  to  be  found  in 
the  observatory,  are  a  heliograph  and  a  magnetometer; 
some  ordinary  thermometers  of  the  highest  and  lowest 
temperature ;  psychrometers ;  several  barometers  and 
aneroids;    anemoscopes;    anemometers    and   pluviometers. 

The  increase  in  its  scientific  relations  which  the  national 
observatory  attained  since  its  inception,  has  been  very 
great,  thanks  to  the  appreciation  with  which  its  labors  have 
been  recognized  by  foreign  associations  and  institutions  of 
a  like  character.  At  present,  it  entertains  relations  in 
Europe  with  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Austria,  Hungar}', 
Belgium,  Denmark  and  Great  Britain ;  with  Greece, 
.Holland,  Italy,  Portugal,  Russia,  Sweden,  Norway,  Switzer- 
land, Roumania,  Turkey;  in  Asia,  with  China,  India,  Japan 
and  Syria  ;  in  Africa,  with  Egypt,  Cape  Colony,  Guinea, 
the  Island  of  Mauritius,  the  Island  of  Madagascar,  and  the 
Island  of  St.  Helena;  in  Oceanica,  with  Australia,  the 
Pliillipine  Islands,  and  New  Zealand;  in  America,  with 
Canada,  the  United  States,  Costa  Rica,  Salvador, Guatemala, 
Brazil,  Columbia,  Chili,  Equador,  English  Guina,  Peru,  the 
Argentine  Republic,  Uruguay  and  Cu))a.  The  total  of 
obscrvutorios,  academics  and  associations  bclonirinir  to  the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  129 

countries  named,  with  which  a  correspondence  is  maintained 
by  the  establishment,  is  423,  the  greater  part  of  which 
exchanges  their  scientific  publications  with  the  observatory. 

The  library,  of  which  there  are  thirteen  shelves,  contains 
2,500  volumes. 

The  staff  of  the  observatory  consists  of  a  manager,  first 
assistant,  an  employe  to  make  the  observations  and  one  to 
make  the  calculations,  a  second  assistant,  a  manipulator  of 
the  chronometers  and  a  party  to  make  the  meteorological 
observations;    a  telegraph  operator  and  a  janitor. 

The  general  government  devotes  $21,208.85  to  the  estab- 
lishment, including  $12,000  wherewith  to  continue  the 
work  of  construction. 

The    Central  Astronomical    Observatory . 

The  Minister  of  Public  Works,  Vicente  Eiva  Palacio,  in 
accord  with  the  President  of  the  Republic,  resolved  upon  the 
construction  of  the  Central  Astronomical  Observatory.  Its 
purpose  was  to  give  impetus  to  the  geography  of  the  country, 
to  afford  practice  to  the  youth  engaged  in  the  study  of  as- 
tronomy, and,  above  all,  to  provide  a  staff  of  persons  to 
make  the  calculations  and  observations  necessary  in  the 
National  Observatory  of  Chapultepec. 

The  observatory  was  located  in  the  upper  portion  of  the 
National  Palace,  under  the  supervision  of  Engineer  Vicente 
Manero.  The  work  was  completed  at  the  end  of  September, 
1877,  but  the  first  observations  were  made  on  the  first  of 
August  previous,  the  day  of  its  installation. 

The  observatory  has  always  been  connected  with  the  In- 
spection of  highways,  its  labors  are  co-ordinated  with  those 
of  the  latter,  according  to  requirements,  and  with  those  of 
the  staff  which  the  Department  of  Fomentation  assigns  to 
said  Inspection. 

From   the  first,   the   observatory   was  noted  for  the  im- 

9 


130  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO. 

portance  of  its  scientific  labors,  of  which  Engineer  Fran- 
cisco Jimenez  had  charge. 

The  hititudes  of  certain  localities  were  fixed  by  telegraphic 
signals  in  the  States  of  Mexico,  Hidalgo,  Qneretaro,  San 
Luis  Potosi,  Guanajuato  and  Jalisco;  a  semi-daily  table  of 
arc-lines  was  published,  formed  by  the  latitude  of  Mexico, 
degree  by  degree  from  0'"  to  70"  which  facilitates  the  calcula- 
tion of  the  rise  and  setting  of  the  stars  ;  a  celestial  chart  based 
on  the  horizon  of  Mexico;  a  pamphlet  entitled,  '<  The  Tele- 
scope and  its  AmjMfi/ing  Power ;  "  a  dissertation  on  the 
method  of  determining  the  longitude  of  the  seconds  pend- 
ent and  of  the  gravity  in  Mexico;  a  work  entitled,  '*  Tlie 
Meridian  Curve  of  Median  Time.''''  Engineers  Anguiano, 
Fernandez  and  Palafox  co-operated  in  these  labors. 
Other  studies  have  been  made,  such  as  the  "  Table  of  Cal- 
cidaiion,"  relating  to  the  values  of  the  azimut  heaters,  the 
level  and  colineation  for  the  observations  made  of  the 
transit  in  the  latitude  of  Mexico.  A  resolution  has  been 
reached  relative  to  the  indulgence  to  be  granted  in  topo- 
graphical operations,  according  to  the  instruments  to  be 
used  in  that  connection  ;  the  most  favorable  time  for  mak- 
ini?  observations  of  terrestrial  ansles  durino;  these  investiga- 
tions;  and  the  inquiry  relating  to  the  astronomical 
refraction  of  the  central  table,  it  having  been  remarked 
that  the  European  tables  on  this  subject  are  unsatisfac- 
tory for  the  conditions  of  the  localit}'. 

The  transit  of  Mercury  through  the  solar  disc  was  also 
[)re(licled  in  the  ol)servatory,  as  well  as  the  solar  eclipse, 
the  first  having  been  verified  on  the  Gth  of  May,  1878,  and 
the  second  on  the  21itli  of  July  of  the  same  year,  and  tin- 
observation  of  the  i)arlial  ccTip-^c  of  the  sun  on  the  llt'.i  of 
Janu:ii-y,  18.S0. 

The  principal  subst'(iucnt  operations  of  the  Central 
Observatory  consist  in  the  change  of  telegraphic  signals 
for  determining  the   longitude  tor  the  engineers  employed 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  131 

in  geographic  surveys;  to  determine  the  time  by  meridian 
gradations  for  the  regulation  of  the  clocks  of  the  capital ; 
to  compare  and  regulate  weights  and  measures  with  due 
precision  ;  and  to  fix  the  work  to  be  done  in  the  office  by 
the  students  of  the  School  of  Engineers. 

The  establishment  possesses  a  transit  telescope  with  a 
focal  distance  of  1.16  metres,  and  a  movable  objective 
opening  of  (59  millimeters;  a  zenith  telescope  with  a  fixed 
focus  and  a  small  movement  which  allows  a  widening  or 
narrowing  necessary  for  the  stellar  focus,  and  it  has  a 
screw  with  a  pinion  which  causes  a  variation  in  the  intens- 
ity of  the  light,  for  the  illumination  at  will  of  the  threads  ; 
another  zenith  telescope  of  the  make  of  Troughton  and 
Simms  ordered  in  England  in  1852,  and  issued  by  the 
Mexican  commision  in  1853  for  tracing  the  northern  bound- 
aries between  the  United  States.  It  was  also  used  by  the 
commission  of  the  Valley  for  fixing  the  geography  of  the 
city  of  Mexico  in  1857,  and  in  1874,  by  the  commission 
selected  for  the  observation  of  the  transit  of  Venus  in  Japan. 
Its  azimut  compass  is  0™31  in  diameter  with  three  nonius 
of  an  approximate  reading  of  30".  It  has  a  vertical  quad- 
rant of  0™1 5  in  radius  with  a  nonius  of  similar  approxima- 
tion, with  a  telescope  of  1™22  of  focal  distance,  objectivity 
of  0'"0765,  of  a  loose  aperture;  three  celestial  eye-glasses, 
one  bent,  the  other  straight,  to  be  used  in  combination 
with  a  microscope  divided  into  a  hundred  parts  and  a  level, 
in  the  quadrant,  whose  divisions  are  1"  00,  with  a  curva- 
ture radius  of  186  metres.  It  possesses,  besides,  four 
straight  astronomical  eye-glasses,  with  their  corresponding 
helioscope,  and  also  a  terrestrial  eye-glass  ;  !i  search  tele- 
scope of  0"  25  focal  distance  of  0"  022, of  a  free  opening, 
with  a  negative  eye-glass. 

There  is  also  in  the  observatory,  an  astronotnical  pendent 
of  Vazquez,  with  a  string  for  eight  days;  a  universal  alta- 
zimut,  the  azimut  compass  of  which  is  0'"26  in  diameter, 


132  THE    RICHES    Of    MEXICO 

with  a  telescope  of  0'"042  of  a  free  iiperturc  whose  reticule 
is  of  5  vertical  threads  and  three  horizontal;  another 
English  altazimut  of  the  make  mentioned,  received  in  1882 ; 
its  tubes  have  a  diameter  of  8  inches  (English),  divided 
into  fractions  of  5  minutes,  and  its  readim^s  are  approxi- 
mated to  a  second  with  microscopes  ;  two  chronographs 
ordered  built  directly  in  London  in  188G  and  the  cost  of 
which  was  78  pounds  sterling;  together  with  several  other 
instruments  of  less  importance. 

Devoted,  as  the  establishment  is,  at  present,  to  geo- 
graphical pursuits,  the  greater  part  of  the  instruments  which 
it  possesses  is  distributed  amongst  the  different  commis- 
sions employed  in  several  localities  of  the  country  in  the 
performance  of  work  under  the  auspices  of  the  "Secretary  of 
Fomentation. 

PUBLIC    MOXUMENTS. 

VI.  Notwithstanding  the  unfavorable  condition  affecting 
the  public  treasury,  the  Secretaiy  of  Public  Works  has 
undertaken  and  carried  into  effect,  the  erection  of  some 
monuments  commemorative  of  the  glorious  deeds  of  illus- 
trious Mexicans,  or  of  benefactors  deserving  the  gratitude 
of  their  contemporaries. 

The  principal  monuments  of  this  class,  to  be  found  in 
the  Republic,  are  the  following:  — 

A  Monument  of  Columbus.  Mr.  Anthony  Escandon 
ordered  this  monument  to  be  built  at  his  own  expense,  to 
be  erected  in  some  public  place  of  the  Capital,  and  intrustcil 
the  French  artist  Mr.  Cordier  with  the  execution  of  the 
work.  Its  parts  were  received  in  Mexico,  in  January, 
1876,  and,  on  the  11th  of  April  the  following  year,  the 
work  of  orectiiiir  the  monument  was  begun  in  the  first 
arbor  of  the  Avenue  of  Ivelbrm,  under  the  direction  of 
Engineer  Elcuterio  Mendoz.  It  was  completed  in  Augusl 
following.     The    monument   consists    of  a    foundation    of 


Mex.  A.  T.  D.  Los  Siglos. 

STATUE  OF  CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS. 
City  of  Mexico. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  133 

basalt  intermixed  with  trachite  and  of  four  steps  of  the 
same  material,  by  which  ascent  is  made  to  a  platform 
paved  with  marble  in  two  colors  and  surrounded  by  an 
iron  railing  supported  by  eight  pillars  of  the  same  ma- 
terial, each  pillar  carrying  five  lamps  provided  with 
globes  of  opaque  crystal  and  adorned  with  projections  of 
oxydized  bronze. 

The  two  parts  of  the  monument  are  of  conchillated  red 
marble  of  the  Vosges.  The  first  has  four  pillowed  rests 
and  the  block  has  four  tablets,  that  of  the  principal  front- 
age containing  the  dedication  to  Christopher  Columbus  and 
being  surmounted  by  the  arms  which  the  Catholic  Kings 
gave  to  the  grreat  Admiral,  in  combination  with  those  of 
Castile.  The  tablet  facing  south  represents  the  construc- 
tion of  the  monastery  of  Santa  Maria  de  la  Rabida  beneath 
the  designs  which  the  celebrated  Father  Marchena  present- 
ed to  Columbus.  The  tablet  facing  north  represents  the 
discovery  of  the  Island  of  Guanhani,  as  Columbus  is  in  the 
act  of  giving  thanks  to  Providence,  and  shows  the  natives 
fleeing  to  the  woods  of  the  interior,  when  they  discover 
him  in  the  act.  The  tablet  facing  west  contains  a  fragment 
of  a  letter  written  by  Columbus  to  Raphadi  Sauris  and, 
lower  down,  the  dedicatory  of  Mr.  Anthony  Escandon 
when  donating  the  monument  to  Mexico.  On  the  four  pro- 
jections at  the  corners  of  the  pedestal,  appear  four  statues 
representing  the  following  personages:  to  the  front  at  the 
right  of  Columbus  is  Father  Marchena,  to  the  left  Father 
Dehesa  ;  on  the  turn,  to  the  right,  Father  Gante  and  to  the 
left  the  Rev-.  Las-Casas. 

A  pedestal  stands  on  the  second  part  of  the  monument, 
with  four  tablets  having  four  projections,  supports  towards 
the  front  and  finished  with  a  cornice  in  the  shape  of  an  in- 
clined plane,  on  which  appears  Columbus  pointing  out  his 
wonderful  discovery  to  the  old  world. 

The  statue  of  Columbus  measures  3.90  metres,  the  ped- 


134  THE    KICIIES    OF    31K.\I(  O 

est;il  on  which  it  rests  2.68  metres  ;  llie  frnines  2.00  metres; 
the  work  itself,  4.47  metres;  the  l)asrtlt  basis,  90  centi- 
metres. The  entire  monument  is  encircled  b}^  a  number 
of  basalt  pillars  through  which  is  passed  an  iron  chain. 

On  the  base  of  the  principal  frontage  the  following, 
inscriptions  appears:  "August,  1877 — General  Pt)rtirio 
Diaz,  being  President  of  the  Republic,  and  Vicente  Riva 
Palacio,  Minister  of  Public  Works,  this  monument  was 
erected."  The  estimate  of  the  work  was  $3,984  and  the 
total  cost,  when  completed,  nearly  $1(),000. 

Hypsograj)]iic  Monuinent.  On  the  19th  of  July,  1877, 
the  Government  determined  upon  the  erection  of  this  mon- 
ument at  the  intersection  of  the  meridian  which  passes 
through  the  south  corner  of  the  front  of  the  National 
Palace  and  the  parallel  which  passes  through  the  corner 
formed  by  the  streets  of  the  Seminary  and  the  Arch- 
bishopric. The  purpose  for  which  this  monument  was 
constructed  was  to  fix  in  a  clear  and  definite  manner  the 
altitude  of  the  different  methods  of  comparison  wiiich  have 
been  used  as  a  basis  of  the  hydrographic  operations  for  the 
city  and  valley  of  Mexico,  as  well  as  for  the  purpose  of 
honoring  the  memory  of  the  illustrious  cosmographist, 
Enrico  Martinez,  who  drew  and  superintended  the  tunnel 
work  by  which  an  exit  was  given  to  the  river  Cuautitlan  in 
the  year  1G08. 

The  designs  and  the  work  of  construction  were  intrusted 
to  the  civil  engineer,  Francisco  M.  Jimenez,  and  the  bronze 
portion  of  the  statue  which  represents  the  city  of  Mexico 
was  let  out  by  contract  to  the  sculptor,  Miguel  Noreila,  for 
the  sum  of  $(5,740. 

The  large  marble  pedestal  was  finished  on  the  5th  of  May, 
1878,  and  on  the  same  day  of  the  year  1881,  the  bronze 
statue  surmounting  it  was  placed  in  position. 

The  monum(;nt  is  propiirly  located  with  relation  to  the 
astronomical  meridian  and  embraces  the  following  details: 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  135 

On  top  are  four  tablets  which  indicate  the  same  level  as  is 
indicated  in  the  sidewalk  to  the  northwest  of  the  National 
Palace,  a  level  which  had  been  determined  previously  in  a 
general  way  by  the  measurements  of  the  lakes.     On  the 
four  sides  of  the  plinth  the  signals  are  made  of  marble,  in 
measurements  by  the  metre,  yard  and  vara.     On  one  of  the 
side  tablets,  the  following  inscription  appears:     *' To  the 
memory  of  the  renowned  cosmographist,  Eurico  Martinez. 
The  Ministery  of  Public  Works,  1878."    On  the  others  are 
to  be  seen  :  a  plate  containing  a  comparative  plan  of  the  city 
indicating  the  altitude  above  the  mean  tide   at  Veracruz; 
an  apparatus  illustrative  of  Lake  Texcoco,  with  a  reference 
scale;    the  geographical  co-ordinations   of    the   center  of 
the  monument,  the    magnetic   inclination    fixed    in    April 
of   the   same    year,  1878,  and    the  altitude  of    the   base 
of  comparison  in  relation  to  the  lower  tangent  of  the  Aztec 
Calendar   which    at   that   time   was   located   at    the    foot 
of  the  east  tower  of  the  Cathedral;    an  inscription  which 
reads  "  General  Porfirio  Diaz,  being  President  of  the  Re- 
public,   and  General    Vicente   Riva  Palacio,  Secretary  of 
Fomentation,    this    monument   was    erected    in   the    year 
1878."     Then  can  be  observed  the  plate  containing  the 
comparative  plan  in  relation  to  the  sidewalk  on  the  north- 
west   corner  of  the  National  Palace,  and  four  horizontal 
channels  with  bronze  rulers  which  indicate  the  median  alti- 
tudes of  lakes  Xochimilco,  San    Cristobal,  Xaltocan  and 
Zumpango,  according  to  the  data  furnished   by  the  Com- 
mission of  the  Valley  in  1862. 

The  statue  which  surmounts  the  monument  is  an  allegory 
of  the  city  of  Mexico,  in  the  attitude  of  placing  a  crown 
upon  a  stone  bearing  the  following  inscription: 

'  *  Enrico  Martin  ez . " 

The  monument  is  four  metres  and  96  centimetres  in 
height,  and  its  cost  was  $12,724.14. 


136  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

Monument  to  Cuauthemoc.  In  1877,  the  Government 
resolved  to  embellish  the  Avenue  of  Reform  with  commem- 
orative monuments,  dedicating  them  to  Cuauthemoc  and  to 
the  Aztec  chiefs  who  distinguished  themselves  during  the 
period  of  the  conquest ;  to  Hidalgo  and  other  heroes  wlio 
aided  in  the  movement  of  independence,  and  to  Juarez  and 
other  notables  of  the  Reform.  For  this  purpose  a  conven- 
tion was  called  on  the  23d  of  August  of  the  same  year,  for 
the  submission  of  designs  of  a  monument  to  the  first  of  the 
chiefs  above  named.  Among  the  five  submitted,  the  com- 
mittee designated  for  that  purpose,  selected,  on  the  15th  of 
April,  1878,  the  design  of  Engineer  Francisco  M.  Jimenez, 
who  received  the  prize  of  $1,000  offered  by  the  convention. 

The  construction  of  the  work  was  undertaken  on  the  5th 
of  May  following  in  the  center  of  the  second  arbor  of  the 
Avenue  of  Reform,  under  the  direction  of  the  same  party 
who  had  prepared  the  design.  In  1881,  certain  changes 
were  recommended  by  Engineer  Jimenez,  which  were  ap- 
proved by  the  Secretary  of  Fomentation,  on  account  of 
which  the  estimates  made  at  first,  amounting  to  $152,031.50 
was  reduced  to  $90,782.23. 

The  bronze  sculpture  work  was  contracted  to  Mr.  Miguel 
Norena.  From  the  month  of  April,  1884,  when  Engineer 
Jimenez  died,  the  construction  of  the  monument  was  in- 
trusted to  Engineer  Ramon  Egea  who  superintended  the 
work  up  to  tlie  time  of  its  dedication,  which  took  place 
the  21st  of  August,  1887,  the  anniversary  of  the  day  on 
which  the  last  of  the  Aztec  emperors  was  tortured  by  the 
conquerors. 

The  principal  base  or  foundation  which  supports  the 
monument,  is  octagonal  in  form,  built  of  stone  from  the 
vicinity,  at  a  height  of  1:50  metres  above  the  level  of  the 
sidewalk  corner.  Eight  bronze  leopards,  each  two  metres 
wide,  resting  on  projecting  pedestals,  gnard  the  entrances 
of  the  four  stairways  leading  to  the  platform  of  the  foun- 


HYPSOGRAPHIC    MONUMENT    IN    MEMORY    OF    ENRICO    MARTINEZ. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  137 

dation,  the  floor  of  which  is  manufactured  of  Guanajuato 
gravel.  On  this  foundation  rests  the  lower  part  of  the 
monument,  which  is  square  and  in  general  appearance 
similar  to  the  Teocalli  with  their  flowing  robes. 

In  the  angles,  there  are  braces  consisting  of  three  large 
projecting  stones  which  leave  an  open  space  in  each  front. 
In  the  front  space,  there  is  a  block  of  bronze  4.02x1.40 
metres,  bearing  this  inscription  in  bronze  letters  of  025 
metres : 

*'To  the  memory  of  Cuauthemoc  and  of  the  warriors 
who  fought  heroically  in  the  defence  of  their  country 
MDXXI." 

In  the  rear  space,  to  the  west,  there  is  another  block  of 
the  same  size  with  the  following  inscription :  "  Porfirio  Diaz, 
President  of  the  Republic,  and  Vicente  Riva  Palacio,  Secre- 
tary of  Fomentation,  ordered  this  monument  constructed 
MDCCCLXXVII ;  it  was  built  by  order  of  Manuel  Gon- 
zalez, President  of  the  Republic  and  the  Secretary  of 
Fomentation,  Carlos  Pacheco  MDCCCLXXXIII." 

On  the  tablet  facing  north,  there  is  a  bas-relief  in  bronze, 
the  same  in  size  as  the  blocks  already  referred  to,  which 
represents  the  apprehension  of  Cuauthemoc  at  the  moment 
when  he  takes  hold  of  the  poniard  which  Cortez  carries  in 
his  belt  and  pronounces  the  words,  "  Take  this  dagger,  then, 
and  kill  me  with  it." 

The  bas-relief  which  faces  the  south  represents  the 
torture  of  the  Aztec  chief  at  the  moment  when  he  pro- 
pounds to  the  Lord  of  Tlacopam,  the  famous  question, 
"  Is  this  a  bath,  or  some  other  species  of  delight?  "  The 
figures  of  these  bas-reliefs  are  1.33  metres  in  height. 

The  second  portion  of  the  monument  has  four  groups 
of  three  columns  in  each  angle;  all  of  Aztec  architecture, 
which  rest  in  the  angles  of  a  pedestal  having  four  inclined 
planes  bearing  these  names  and  inscriptions:  Cuitlahuac, 
Cacama,  Tetlepanquetzal  and  Coanacoch,  names  of  the  four 


138  THE    KICHES    OF    MEXICO 

allied  kinjjs  who  distin£ruished  themselves  during  the  war 
of  the  conquest. 

In  the  intermediate  columns,  also  :i  Toltec  ornamentation, 
are  also  placed  bronze  insignia  representing  the  weapons, 
banners  and  badges  of  the  allied  kings.  The  cornice  work 
similar  in  design  to  that  of  the  palaces  of  Uxmal  and 
Palenque  has  a  frieze  of  shields,  armor  and  weapons  of 
war,  used  and  worn  by  the  Aztec  warriors.  The  upper- 
most portion  of  the  monument  consists  of  a  pedestal  with 
four  tablets  adorned  with  scrolls  in  the  angles.  The  front 
tablet  displays  a  bronze  hieroglyphic  of  Cuauthemoc,  that 
is  to  say ;  an  eagle  which  in  its  swoop  touches  with  its  bill 
the  imprint  of  a  human  foot,  which  means,  "  The  eagle 
that  alighted." 

The  pedestal  is  surrounded  by  a  cornice  ornamented  with 
rattlesnakes  intertwined,  and  on  this  is  erected  the  statue 
of  Cuauthemoc  in  the  garb  of  a  warrior  and  wearing  a 
feather  plume.  He  is  clad  in  a  cotton  jacket  and  a  cloak 
which  falls  from  his  shoulders,  and  he  holds  in  his  right 
hand  an  arrow  which  he  is  in  the  attitude  of  shooting  at  the 
enemy,  while,  at  the  same  time,  with  his  left  hand  he 
gracefully  lifts  the  mantle. 

The  statue  is  of  bronze  and  four  metres  in  height.  The 
whole  work  is  built  of  very  hard,  polished  stone  of  a 
greenish  gray  color  quarried  in  Puebla.  The  statue,  bas- 
relief,  leopards,  emblems,  tablets,  frieze,  and  ornamenta- 
tion of  the  pedestal  are  made  of  bronze;  weight  11,980 
kilograms  and  the  total  cost  of  the  monument  was 
$94,914. 

Monument  of  Chapultepec.  In  September,  1877,  Engi- 
neer Agustin  Diaz,  professor  and  former  student  of  the 
Military  College,  in  the  name  of  some  of  the  members  of 
the  institution,  asked  permission  from  the  Secretary  of 
Fomentation  to  erect  a  monument  to  bo  dedicated  to  the 
memory  of  the  students  who   fell   at  Chapultepec  on  the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  139 

13th  of  September,  1847,  while  fighting  against  the  North 
American  troops. 

The  design  was  furnished  by  Engineer  Ramon  Rodriguez 
Arangayti  who  was  also  a  student  of  the  College,  and  who, 
as  such,  took  part  in  the  event  referred  to.  The  superin- 
tendence of  the  work  was  given  in  charge  to  Engineer 
Francisco  de  P.  Herrera.  On  the  6th  of  September,  1881, 
the  monument  was  completed;  on  the  13th  of  the  same 
month,  the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Chapultepec,  it  was 
solemnly  dedicated  by  the  President  of  the  Republic. 

This  monument  is  a  simple  one;  it  is  a  6"'50  in 
height  and  is  erected  on  the  spot  where  the  bridge  is  to  be 
found,  where  the  students  fell  or  were  taken  prisoners. 

It  consists  of  a  platform  composed  of  six  blocks  of  stone, 
one  metre  square  and  fifty  centimetres  high,  on  which  rests 
a  plinth  of  two  metres  in  length  and  one  and  a  half  metres 
in  width  and  one  metre  in  height.  On  this  plinth  is  placed 
the  foundation  stone  of  the  five  faced  or  star  block,  the 
dimensions  of  which  are,  1"\50  in  length  and  width  by 
l'"10  in  height.  On  the  front  of  the  four  tablets  of  the 
block  commemorative  inscriptions  are  engraved  ;  the  foun- 
dation is  composed  of  a  large  stone,  the  four  corners  of 
which  display  acanthus,  leaves,  bunched  oak  and  laurel  in 
bas-relief;  of  a  small  block  of  stone,  decorated  with 
Green  sea-weed  and  finally  of  a  filete  on  which  rests  the 
monolith  bearing  the  inscriptions.  This  is  2'"80  in  height, 
1™40  in  length  and  0'"80  in  width  and  has  four  beveled 
corners. 

A  palm  tree  in  bas-relief  overhangs  the  names  of  the 
students  who  perished. 

On  the  back  of  the  monument  are  the  names  of  the 
leaders,  officers,  and  students  taken  prisoners  in  this 
glorious  combat.  The  other  two  sides  or  faces  of  the 
monolith,  contain  a  commemorative  inscription  and  a  dedi- 
cation of  the  monument. 


140  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

The  cap  of  the  star  stone  which  consists  of  a  block  1™ 
30  in  lenirth,  0"'70  in  width  and  1'"  in  height,  is  orna- 
mented with  a  filote,  a  moulding  or  bead  in  pearls  and  a 
large  ogee  fluting  of  pearls,  with  figures  of  sea-weed.  In 
the  middle  of  cypress  and  laurel  wreaths,  is  to  be  found 
the  national  coat  of  arms;  the  balance  of  the  decorative 
work,  consisting  of  evergreens,  poppies,  etc.,  etc.  This  is 
all  in  bas-relief ;  the  eagles  are  of  bronze  and  the  material 
of  chiluca  stone  obtained  from  the  quarries  of  the  estate 
*«Del  Cristo." 

The  total  cost  of  the  monument  was  $9,676.05. 

There  are  also  several  other  important  monuments,  in 
the  different  States  of  the  Republic,  which  it  would  take  too 
long  to  enumerate,  amongst  which,  the  most  worthy  of 
note  are  those  built  to  the  memor}^  of  the  liberator,  Hidalgo, 
in  the  community  of  Dolores  and  in  the  State  of  Chihua- 
hua. 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.* 

VII.  The  old  system  of  weights  and  measures  of  the 
colonial  time  prevailed  in  Mexico  until  1857,  when  the 
French  decimal  metric  system  with  a  few  modifications  was 
established  by  the  law  of  the  15th  of  March,  that  is  to  say; 
the  ara  for  surface  and  ground  measurement ;  the  litre  as 
the  unit  of  contents  as  wellfor  liquids  as  for  solids ;  the  gram 
as  a  unit  of  weiglit,  and  the  Mexican  i)eseta,  ten  grams  and 
ninety  millograms  in  weight,  as  the  monetary  unit;  but  the 
enactment  of  the  15th  of  March,  1861,  fixed  as  the  unit  of 
value,  the  silver  dollar  of  the  same  quality  and  the  same 
weight  as  it  possesses  at  present.  As  a  result  of  this  enact- 
ment, a  new  department  was  organized  in  the  Ministry  of 


♦  Vide,  '«  Commercial  Devolopinent." 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  1^1 


Fomentation  called  *'  General  management  of  weights  and 
measures,"  the  purpose  of  which  should  be,  to  formu- 
late reduction  tables  of  the  old  and  new  methods,  design 
and  examine  the  arrangements  relating  to  new  coins  ;  to 
submit  designs  and  suggest  legal  changes  on  the  subject, 
and  to  organize  the  work  of  market  weighers  and  the  mar- 
ket taxes.  On  the  10th  of  November,  1862,  the  respective 
tables  were  approved,  in  connection  with  the  decimal 
metric  system  already  established. 

The  law  of  1857  prescribed  that,  from  the  first  of  Janu- 
ary, 1862,  this  system  should  be  used  exclusively  in 
Mexico  ;  but  the  force  of  custom  amongst  the  masses,  and 
the  critical  condition  of  the  country  at  the  time,  resulted 
only  in  such  compliance  with  the  law  as  affected  official 
acts    and    the   business   of  the  government  in  its   various 

departments. 

In  conformity   with    the    provisions   of  the  law  of  the 
2d  of  August,  1863,  the  measurements  of  land  and  water 
either  for  Irrigation  or  power,  are  determined  by  engineers 
and  surveyors  according  to  the  decimal,  metric  system,  and 
the  longitudinal  road  and  surface  measurements  by  the  tables 
already  mentioned  of  the  10th  of  November,  1862.     This 
law  requires  also,  that  in  making  a  valuation,  the  engineers 
and  surveyors  must  indicate  the  agricultural  character  of 
the  land,  submit  a  plan  or  sketch  of  the  land  sold,  and  the 
lon-itude  of  the  boundaries  and  the  size  of  the  angles  must 
show,  on  each  plan  or  sketch,  the  astronomical  and  magnetic 
position,    indicating   the   inclination   that    may  have  been 
observed,    and    the    date   of  observation.     The   plans    or 
sketches  must  show  the  surface  conditions  of  the  lands  ;  and, 
in  determining  distance  and  making  official  measurements, 
the  engineers  and  surveyors  must  indicate  the  changes  to  be 
made  fn  the  measurements  in  case  the  ground  should  not  be 
level  and  for  that  reason,  necessitate  corrections. 

For  liquids,  the  litre  is  the  only  measure.     In  the  com- 


142  Tin:  i;icni:>  or  MKXUf> 

piilalion  of  clitcli  water  the  fiecond  is  the  unit  of  time,  and 
for  city  water,  the  minute:  a  surco  is  equal  to  six  and  one- 
half  litres,  per  second  of  ditch  measurement,  and  for  city 
measurement,  the  jmja  is  considered  equal  to  45  centimes. 
Tiie  eu£!fineers,  survej'ors  and  measurers  of  water  determine 
in  each  case  the  data  applicable  to  the  city  and  country 
which  are  co-related  with  matters  of  inclination,  distance 
from  the  point  of  measurement  of  the  pressure  level;  all 
of  which  should  be  taken  into  account,  the  formulas  used 
and  the  motives  by  which  they  were  governed  in  their 
work  being  noted  in  each  case. 

The  measure  of  the  power  force  is  the  kilograraetre, 
that  is,  a  kilogram  of  power  per  second  from  a  metre  in 
height,   75  kilogrametres  being  equal  to  one  horse  power. 

On  the  25th  of  April,  1881,  the  Secretary  of  Fomen- 
tation suggested  to  Congress  a  law  intended  to  secure  the 
detinite  adoption  of  the  decimal  system  of  measures.  The 
measure  having  been  discussed  and  passed,  with  some 
modifications,  a  law  was  enacted  covering  the  subject  on 
the  20th  of  December,  1882.  By  this  it  was  determined 
that,  from  the  first  of  January,  1884,  the  new  system  should 
go  into  efiect  exclusively  in  so  far  as  ofiicial  acts,  commerce, 
the  arts,  business,  and  all  other  relations,  both  public  and 
private,  were  concerned.  Certain  contradictions  which  were 
remarked  in  the  formulas  of  this  law,  and  difliculties  expe- 
rienced in  its  enforcement,  induced  the  President  to  submit 
another  measure  to  Congress  on  the  3rd  of  December, 
1883,  for  the  amendment  of  certain  portions.  The  measure 
being  approved  without  alteration,  it  was  passed  on  the 
14th  of  the  same  month.  According  to  this  enactment 
the  metric  system  should  be  used  from  the  first  of  January, 
188G  ;  })ut  after  July,  1880,  the  Secretary  of  Public  Works 
should  establish  offices  to  verify  weights  and  measures  in 
the  capital  of  the  llei)ublic,  in  the  capital  of  the  States, 
and  territorv  of  California,  with  a  view  to  a  Hording  to  all 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  143 

municipalities,  and  to  individuals  who  may  desire  it,  the 
benefit  of  their  supervision,  as  well  as  for  the  verification 
of  the  weights  that  may  be  submitted  to  them.  These 
offices  were  to  remain  established  for  five  years,  after  wiiich 
time  the  work  of  verification  was  to  be  performed  in  the 
offices  known  as  "  Fiel  Contraste." 

The  Department  of  Fomentation  was  authorized  to  enter 
into  contract  with  individuals,  for  the  establishment  of 
factories  for  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  the  new  weights 
and  measures,  these  factories  receiving  exemption  during 
ten  years  from  every  kind  of  tax  or  contribution,  general 
or  local,  and  the  materials  intended  for  manufacture  being 
also  exempt  from  the  payment  of  duties  or  internal  revenue 
taxes,  subject  to  the  restrictions  imposed  by  the  Executive. 

By  an  enactment  of  the  19th  of  December,  1888,  the 
period  fixed  was  extended  to  the  first  of  July,  1891,  and 
that  fixed  for  the  establishment  of  offices  attending  to  the 
matter  of  verification,  to  January  of  the  same  year. 

By  a  new  enactment  of  December  the  17th,  1890,  the 
duration  of  the  first  law  was  continued  to  the  first  of  Jan- 
uary, 1893,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  effect  to  the  metric 
system  ;  instructions  being  given  at  the  same  time,  by  this 
hiw,  that  the  offices  of  verification  or  cheek  system,  which 
the  Secretary  of  Fomentation  might  establish,  should  adopt 
the  weights  and  measures  of  the  decimal  metric  system 
tc  the  absolute  exclusion  of  the  old  method,  the  sale  of 
its  weight  and  measures  as  well  as  their  manufacture  and 
verification,  to  cease  from  the  time  that  the  same  Ministry 
should,  in  its  judgment,  have  acquired  a  sufficient  number 
of  weights  and  measures  properly  approved. 

CONTRACTS    RELATIVE    TO    WEIGHTS    AND    MEASURES. 

In  conformity  with  the  contract  of  the  16th  of  October, 
1890,  Mr.  Alexander  Casarin  was  empowered  by  the  Secre- 


144  THK    RICHES    OP    MKXICO 

tary  of  Colonization  and  Commerce  (Fomentation),  to 
establish  in  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  country  one  or  more  factories  for  the  manufacture 
of  weights  and  measures,  which,  under  the  new  system, 
should  be  subjected  to  the  check  system  of  the  respective 
offices.  The  Department  of  Fomentation  should  furnish 
to  the  beneliciary  the  authorized  models  or  molds,  for  the 
manufacture  of  weights  and  measures,  designating  the 
names  required  for  each  city,  as  well  as  for  their  respective 
sub-divisions. 

"  The  National  Manufacturing  Company  of  Weights  and 
Measures,"  as  the  institution  organized  by  Mr.  Casarin  is 
to  be  designated,  is  under  obligation  to  keep  its  work  shops 
open  and  to  manufacture  the  official  collections,  as  well  as 
the  greatest  possible  number  of  those  destined  for  public 
use  during  the  period  fixed  for  the  substitution  of  the  pres- 
ent decimal  metric  system. 

The  mechanism,  utensils,  fixtures  and  materials,  necessary 
for  the  manufacture  of  weights  and  measures,  will  be  free, 
during  ten  years,  from  import  duties,  whether  State  or 
Federal,  subject  to  the  restrictions  imposed  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Fomentation.  During  the  same  time  the  factories 
which  the  concessionaire  may  establish  shall  be  exempt 
from  all  taxes  and  contributions  general  and  local  during 
the  period  of  five  years  to  date  from  the  inception  of  the 
contract.  At  the  same  time  the  government  obligates  itself 
not  to  grant  to  any  other  person  or  company  a  similar  con- 
cession covering  the  same  privilege. 

The  Government  grants  to  the  concessionaire  a  subsidy  of 
$100,000,  which,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  con- 
tract, shall  be  paid  by  fifty  per  cent  of  the  check  or  verifi- 
cation taxes,  or  license  imposed  on  the  weights  and  measures 
which  the  concessionaire  or  company  has  to  pay  on  the 
amount  of  production. 

The  ten  years  mentioned  in  the  contract  having  expired, 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  145 

the  Government  ciin  acquire  title,  at  an  appraised  value,  of 
the  work  shops  established  by  the  concessionaires  or  the 
company,  and  also  of  the  materials  therein  contained. 

This  contract  was  approved  by  Congress  on  the  3d  of 
June,  1891. 

The  Department  of  Colonization,  Industry  and  Commerce 
entered  into  another  contract  with  the  same  Mr.  Casarin  on 
the  13th  of  June,  1891,  by  virtue  of  which  the  latter  will 
deliver  to  the  former  a  collection  of  10,000  plates  in  lots  of 
nine,  consisting  of  chromo-lithographs,  measures,  weights 
and  geometrical  instruments  and  drawings  of  the  decimal 
metric  system,  in  the  following  manner :  plates  representing 
longitudinal  measurements  with  their  geometrical  descrip- 
tion, in  five  colors;  surface  measurements,  measures  of 
bulk  and  capacity  for  liquids,  grain,  with  their  geometric 
description,  in  three  colors :  utensils  for  weighing,  with  their 
description,  in  five  colors:  pieces  of  iron  and  bronze  with 
their  description,  in  three  colors:  coins  of  gold,  silver  and 
copper,  in  four  colors  ;  and  a  general  chart  or  plate,  represent- 
ing the  entire  metric  system,  in  five  colors.  The  drawings 
must  be  of  the  natural  size,  and  each  plate  will  bear  the 
proper  nomenclature  and  explanatory  notes  of  the  system. 

The  concessionaire  obligates  himself  by  this  contract, 
to  deliver  every  month  or  oftener,  18,000  plates,  so  that 
at  the  expiration  of  five  months  the  collection  of  10,000 
lots,  of  nine  plates  each,  will  have  been  delivered. 

THE    INTERNATIONAL    METRIC    CONVENTION. 

An  event  of  importance  to  Mexico,  has  been  its  partici- 
pation in  the  International  Metric  Convention  of  Paris  in 
1875,  the  object  of  which  was  to  secure  the  extensive 
adoption  of  the  decimal  metric  system. 

On  the  29th  of  August,  1889,  the  Mexican  minister  in 
Paris    asked  authority  from  the    Department   of  Foreign 

10 


146  TIIK    IJICIIES    OF    MEXICO 

Relations,  for  participation  ou  the  part  of  Mexico,  in  the 
international  conference;  but  the  exact  obligations  to  be 
incurred  by  the  Government  because  of  such  action,  and 
the  bases  and  respective  regulations,  not  being  known,  an 
answer  was  returned  on  the  30th  of  September,  of  the 
same  year,  postponing  action  until  the  necessary  informa- 
tion could  be  obtained. 

On  the  fourth  of  July,  1890,  permission  was  accorded 
by  the  President  allowing  Mexico  to  take  part  in  the  inter- 
national league,  and  it  was  arranged  that  the  Mexican 
minister  in  Paris  should  take  the  necessary  steps  to  make 
known  to  the  French  government,  that  the  Republic  would 
take  part  in  the  convention,  and  would  comply  with  what- 
ever conditions  which  might  be  imposed  on  it,  as  well  as 
for  its  admission  to  the  conference,  as  for  acquiring  the 
dies  of  the  metre  and  kilogram  of  iridied  platinum. 

In  the  months  of  January  and  September  of  1891,  drafts 
to  the  amount  of  29,048  francs  were  forwarded  to  the 
Mexican  Ciiarge  d'Aflairs  in  Paris,  to  pay  for  the  die  of  the 
kilogram  and  to  meet  the  share  of  expense  for  the  inscrip- 
tion and  for  the  exiu'n.sc  incurred  during  the  first  year.  On 
the  20th  of  October  following,  the  sum  of  22,335  francs 
was  given  to  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  representing 
the  share  of  the  expense  incurred  by  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment for  the  entertainment  of  the  "  International  Bureau 
of  Weights  and  Measures  ;  "  the  participation  of  the  Mexican 
Republic  in  the  Paris  convention  of  May  20th,  1875,  being 
thus  aflirmed. 

The  die  of  the  kilogram  which  arrived  safely  in  Mexico 
as  appears  from  the  proceedings  of  April  the  4th,  1891,  was 
designated  by  the  number  21;  it  was  taken  from  the  othco 
of  the  International  Railroad  together  with  all  its  parts 
and  certificates  of  its  origin,  on  the  13th  of  November  of 
the  same  year,  after  the  diiivory  to  the  Minister  of  Foreign 
Relations   of  the   sum    of    3,305    francs.     The  die  of  the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  147 

kilosi'am  and  accompanying  documents  were  brought  to 
Mexico  by  Captain  Angel  Ortiz  Monasterio,  in  the  corvette 
"  Escuehi  General  Zaragoza "  and  were  received  in  the 
Department  of  Fomentation  through  the  mediation  of  the 
Department  of  Foreign  Relations,  on  the  20th  of  January, 
1892.  On  the  27th  of  November,  1891,  the  sum  of  2,878 
francs  was  paid,  this  being  Mexico's  share  of  the  expense 
of  the  International  Convention  of  the  year  1891;  and  on 
the  29th  of  March,  1892,  the  sum  of  2,460  francs,  its  share 
for  this  year,  was  also  paid. 

On  the  30th  of  November,  1891,  the  following  nations 
were  represented  in  the  International  Metric  Convention: 
Germany,  Austria,  Hungary,  Belgium,  The  Argentine 
RepubUc,  Denmark,  United  States  of  America,  France, 
Great  Britain,  Italy,  Japan,  Mexico,  Peru,  Portugal,  Rou- 
mania,  Servia,  Sweden,  Norway,  Switzerland,  Turkey  and 
Venezuela. 

MEXICAN    NATIONAL    CURRENCY. 

VIII.  In  order  to  substitute  a  National  Currency  for  the 
old  coin  of  the  Spanish  Government,  the  Mexican  Congress, 
two  years  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  by  decree 
of  the  1st  of  August,  1823,  ordered  the  making  of  new 
dies  for  the  coining  of  said  money. 

All  coins  whether  of  silver,  gold,  or  copper,  were  to 
bear  the  same  obverse,  that  is,  the  escutcheon  of  the  nation 
was  to  be  stamped  upon  it,  and  around  its  border  the  in- 
scription "  Republic  of  Mexico." 

All  silver  coins  were  to  bear  on  their  reverse  a  cap  with 
the  word  Liberty  stamped  diagonally  across  it  and  from 
whose  center  rays  of  light  shot  forth,  besides  which  should 
be  expressed  the  value,  the  year  and  place  of  mintage, 
together  with  their  ley  *  and  the  initials  of  the  assayers. 


*  The  value  of  pure  metal. 


148  THE    lUCHES    OF    MEXICO 

On  the  reverse  of  all  gold  coias,  a  hand  was  to  be 
stamped  holding  a  rod  with  the  Liberty  cap  on  its  point, 
the  whole  resting  upon  a  representation  of  an  open  Code 
Book,  with  the  inscription  *' Liberty  in  the  Law"  around 
it,  as  also  the  same  marks  and  signs,  that  appear  on  the 
silver  coins,  indicating  their  value,  place  and  year  of  mint- 
age, etc 

On  the  reverse  of  copper  coins  was  to  appear  two  palms 
forming  a  fringe,  in  the  center  of  which  their  respective 
value  was  indicated,  and  also  the  year  and  place  of  mintage 
was  to  be  stamped  upon  it. 

The  alloy  in  the  silver  and  gold  coins  was  to  remain 
the  same  as  established  by  the  Spanish  Government  forty 
years  before,  and  which  regulations  are  still  in  force. 

By  the  law  of  March  loth,  1857,  the  metric-decimal 
system  (as  was  previously  mentioned  page  140  referring 
to  weights  and  measures)  was  first  established  in  Mexico, 
and  the  "  peseta "  or  shilling  was  declared  to  be  the 
monetary  unit;  that,  however,  was  changed  by  the  law  of 
March  15th,  1861,  which  made  the  dollar  ($1.00)  the  unit 
for  silver  coins  and  for  gold  that  of  the  denomination  of 
ten  dollars  ($10,00). 

This  same  law  also  decreed  that  the  ten  dollar  (  $  10.00 )  gold 
pieces  should  be  known  by  the  name  of  Hidalgos,  those  of 
twenty  dollars  ($20.00)  as  double  Hidalgos  and  those  of 
five  dollars  ($5.00)  two  dollars  and  a  half  ($2.50)  and  one 
dollar  ($1.00)  as  half,  quarter,  and  tenth  Hidalgo  respect- 
ively, but  this  disposition  up  to  the  present  date,  has  never 
been  put  into  effect. 

In  conformity  with  the  law  of  November  28th,  18G7, 
called  the  "  Cufio  dc  la  Balanza  "  Scales  die  the  silver  dollar, 
containing  the  amount  of  alloy  and  the  weight  prescribed 
by  the  aforementioned  law  of  1823,  is  the  monetary  unit 
of  the  Republic,  and  is  subdivided,  according  to  the  metric- 
decimal  system  as  follows-   two  coins  of  the  value  of  50 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  149 

cs.  each,  four  of  25  cs.,  ten  of  10  cs.,  and  twenty  of  5 
cs.,  the  penny  or  1  cs.,  piece  must  be  made  of  copper  or 
some  alloy  in  which  copper  predominates. 

The  value  of  the  various  gold  coins  is  twenty  dollars 
($20.00),  ten  dollars  ($10  00),  five  dollars  ($5.00),  two 
dollars  and  a  half  ($2.50)  and  a  dollar  ($1.00)  respectively^ 

The  ley*  of  all  silver  coins  is  expressed  in  decimal  figures, 
0,902-iVo-o»  (1^  dineros  20  grains)  and  that  of  gold  coins, 
by  875,  or  21  carats. 

The  weights  of  the  different  silver  coins  are  as  follows: 
the  dollar  ($1.00)  27  grammes  73  milligrammes,  the  50  cs. 
piece,  13  grammes  536  milligrammes,  the  quarter  or  25  cs. 
piece,  6  grammes  768  milligrammes,  the  10  cs.  piece,  2 
grammes  707  milligrammes,  and  the  5  cs.  piece,  1  gramme 
653  milligrammes. 

The  weight  of  the  various  gold  coins  is  as  follows:  the 
$20.00  piece,  33  grammes  841  milligrammes,  the  $10.00 
piece,  16  grammes  920  milligrammes,  the  $5.00  piece,  8 
grammes  460  milligrammes,  the  $2.50  piece,  4  grammes 
230  milligrammes,  and  the  one  [dollar  piece,  1  gramme 
692  milligrammes. 

The  weight  of  the  copper  penny  or  one  cent  piece  is  8 
grammes. 

The  diameter  of  the  silver  dollar  is  37  millimetres  and 
that  of  its  subdivisions  is  as  follows;  The  50  cs.  piece,  30 
millimetres,  the  25  cs.  piece,  25  millimetres,  the  10  cs. 
piece,  17  millimetres. 

The  diameter  of  the  various  gold  coins  is  as  follows  :  the 
$20.00  piece,  34  millimetres,  the  $10.00  piece,  27  millime- 
tres, the  $5.00  piece,  22  millimetres,  the  $2.50  piece,  18 
millimetres  and  the  $1.00  piece,  15  millimetres. 

The  difference  allowed  for  precious  metals,  either  in 
excess,  or  deficiency  in  ley,  must  not  exceed  0,003  in  silver 


*  See  note,  page  147. 


150  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

coins,  the  deficiency  in  ley,  however,  is  only  allowed  in 
special  cases,  and  not  in  the  general  mintage  of  coins. 

The  hiw  of  1867,  whose  object  was  to  reform  the 
national  currency,  uniformly  regulating  its  subdivisions, 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  simultaneous  use  of  the  coins 
of  the  metric-decimal  and  those  of  the  imperial,  or  old 
system,  was  prejudicial  to  the  public  interest,  also  requested 
engravers,  whether  foreign  or  native,  to  send  in  designs 
for  improving  and  perfecting  the  model  in  force,  and 
named  the  15th  of  September,  1868,  as  the  date  on  which 
the  so-called  imperial  coins  were  to  be  retired  from  circu- 
lation, therefore  it  came  to  pass  that  in  accordance  with 
this  law  (which  is  still  in  force)  the  coinage  of  moneys  of 
the  Scales  die  was  ordered,  but  this  did  not  meet  with  suc- 
cess, not  only  on  account  of  their  faulty  design,  but  also 
from  the  fact  that  they  were  not  accepted  in  Asia  as 
current  coin. 

This  caused  Congress  to  issue  the  decree  of  May  29th, 
1873,  which  ordered  the  re-establishment  of  the  die  used 
prior  the  28th  of  November,  1867,  but  that  all  the  other 
dispositions  relating  to  the  weights,  fractioning,  etc.,  made 
by  the  law  of  November,  1867,  were  to  remain  in  force. 

A  decree  -of  Congress  issued  on  the  16th  of  December, 
1881,  provided  for  the  coinage  of  copper  coins  of  the 
denomination  of  one,  two,  and  five  cents,  to  consist  of  a 
mixture  containing  from  75  to  80  per  cent  of  copper  and  20 
to  25  per  cent  of  nickel,  also  determining  the  weights  and 
diameters  of  the  same,  at  the  same  time  stopping  the  coin- 
age in  the  mints  of  silver  5  cents  pieces,  and  copper  pennies 
or  cent  pieces  ;  it  also  decreed  two  years  later,  the  retire- 
ment from  circulation  of  copper  coins  of  1,  1-},  and  3  cents. 

The  total  issue  of  this  new  coin  was  restricted  to  four 
millions  dollars  and  then  the  Executive  was  authorized  to 
proceed  with  its  coinage,  anol  to  issue  it  according  to  the 
wants  of  the  public. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  151 

The  Government  contracted  for  said  coinage  and  this 
fractional  currency  was  soon  introduced ;  shortly  after- 
wards, however,  speculators  monopolized  large  quantities 
of  nickel,  which  was  paid  into  the  public  offices,  especially 
in  the  capital  and  coast  custom-houses,  in  large  quantities; 
great  losses  resulted  therefrom,  as  it  was  difficult  to  put  it  in 
circulation  again,  and  as  the  recounting  of  it  involved  a  loss 
of  time,  it  was  received  in  bulk,  and  by  weight,  which 
owing  to  the  difference  in  weight  of  the  respective  coins, 
led  to  dishonesty  ond  fraud. 

About  the  middle  of  the  year  1883  nickel  commenced  to 
suffer  a  depreciation  in  value,  ranging  from  4  to  50  per 
cent,  which  induced  merchants  to  set  different  prices  on 
their  goods,  acccording  as  they  were  paid  in  silver  or  nickel. 

The  law  of  December  12th,  1883,  proclaimed  to  prevent 
this  evil,  decreed  the  forced  circulation  of  the  nickel  coins 
to  the  amount  of  20  cents  in  every  payment,  and  that  all 
Federal  offices  should  not,  in  any  transaction,  payout  more 
than  5  per  cent  of  it,  also  that  all  Federal  treasury  offices 
should  receive  it  without  limit  up  to  the  last  day  of  the 
year  1883,  and  during  the  following  year,  from  January 
1st  to  February  29th,  to  the  extent  of50  per  cent,  from 
March  1st  to  April  30th  of  30  per  cent,  from  May  1st  to 
June  30th  of  20  percent,  and  July  1st,  and  thereafter  to  the 
extent  of  10  per  cent  iu  all  payments  of  moneys. 

It  also  ordered  that  all  Federal  offices  should  withhold 
from  circulation  the  nickel  5  cent  piece  not  yet  issued  and 
retain  all  those  that  should  be  paid  in. 

By  Circular  of  the  Department  of  Interior,  issued  some 
days  earlier  (on  the  2nd  December,  1883),  heav}'  fines,  or 
imprisonment  was  to  be  imposed  on  all  persons  who  should 
refuse  to  receive  the  new  coin,  or  tried  to  embarrass,  or 
impede,  its  circulation,  as  also  on  all  merchants  who  refused 
to  receive  it,  or  set  higher  prices  on  their  goods  in  the 
event    of  being   paid  in  nickel,   while  on  the   other  hand 


152  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

the  City  Council,  and  the  Treasury  Department,  took  the 
necessary  steps  to  facilitate  merchants  and  importers,  in  the 
purchase  at  reasonable  rates  payable  in  nickel,  of  all  goods 
of  chief  necessity,  to  be  sold  at  retail,  and  offices  were 
also  opened  in  the  public  markets  where  said  coin  was 
exchanged  for  silver  at  par. 

By  the  decree  of  January  9th,  1884,  the  emission  of 
nickel  certificates  for  the  amounts  of  $10.00,  $50.00, 
$100.00  and  $500.00  was  authorized  ;  these  were  to  be  de- 
posited in  the  National  Bank,  which  was  to  sell  them  at  par 
for  silver  coins,  and  from  the  proceeds  of  said  sales,  50 
per  cent  was  to  be  applied  to  the  exchange,  also  at  par,  of 
silver  for  nickel  coins  deposited  by  private  individuals, 
with  said  bank,  for  that  purpose. 

This  decree,  as  also  that  of  the  16th  of  the  same  month 
and  year  assigned  for  the  redemption  of  said  certificates, 
15  i)er  cent  of  the  receipts  of  the  custom  houses  at  Vera- 
cruz, Guaymas,  La  Paz,  Matamoros,  Mazathm,  Laredo, 
Salina  Cruz,  Paso  del  Norte,  Tonala,  Campeche,  Frontcra, 
Progreso,  Tampico,  Tuxpan,  Acapulco,  and  San  Bias, 
from  February  to  June  and  in  July  and  thereafter  10  per 
cent  of  the  same. 

In  view  of  the  lack  of  fractional  coin,  and  to  further  the 
carrying  out  of  the  above  dispositions,  the  Department  of 
Fomentation  arranged,  with  the  lessees  of  the  mint  for  the 
comage,  in  advance,  of  double  the  amount  of  5  cent  and 
10  cent  pieces  specified  in  the  respective  contracts. 

By  decree  of  April  7th,  1884,  nickel  coin  was  not 
accepted  at  the  custom-houses  in  payment  of  duties,  but  it 
ordered  that  what  remained  of  it  in  circulation  should  be 
received  in  all  the  other  pul)iic  offices  according  to  the  pro- 
visions of  the  law  of  December  12th,  1883. 

Finally  the  decree  of  Congress  of  May  10th,  1886, 
revoked  that  of  December  16th,  18.S1,  as  also  all  the  dis- 
positions rtilatiiig    thereto   niaile   liter,   and    re-established 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  153 

the  monetary  law  of  November  27th,  18G7,  and  ordered  the 
issue  of  nickel  coins.  By  same  decree  the  executive  was 
authorized  to  order  the  issue  of  $200,000.00  in  copper  and 
silver  coins  of  denomination  of  1  and  5  cents  respectively, 
the  same  to  have  a  forced  circulation  to  the  extent  of  25 
cents  in  every  payment;  the  issue  of  the  5  cent  coins  was 
to  be  effected  according  to  the  demands  of  the  retail  trader. 

The  law  of  June  4,  1888,  ordered  that  all  silver  coins  of 
the  value  12^  cs.,  61  cs.,  3  cs.,  all  coins  that  had  become 
defaced  by  use  and  all  copper  moneys  of  the  old  issue,  should 
be  called  in,  for  the  purpose  of  being  recoined;  also  that  on 
June  30th  of  the  following  year  the  legal  circulation  of  said 
coins  should  cease,  and  that  prices  of  goods,  wages,  etc., 
should  be  expressed  in  decimal  figures. 

By  the  law  of  June  1,  1889,  the  date  set  by  the  preced- 
ing one  was  extended  to  June  30,  1890,  and  further  extended 
to  April,  1891,  by  that  of  June  10,  1890. 

Reo-ulations  issued  on  November  30,  1889,  ordered  that 
all  receiving  offices  in  the  Republic  whether  State  or  Federal 
should  set  apart  for  redemption  all  defaced  50  cs.  and  25  cs. 
pieces,  those  known  as  "  provisionales  "  also  all  12|-  and  6 
cs.  in  silver  and  copper  3  and  1^  cs.  pieces,  which  coins 
should  be  forwarded  to  the  respective  agencies  of  the 
National  Bank,  to  be  exchanged  for  decimal  currency. 

All  salaries,  wages,  prices  of  goods,  freights,  etc.,  were 
to  be  fixed  and  paid  in  said  currency,  under  penalty  of  a 
fine  of  $25.00  for  the  first  ofl'ense  and  $50.00  in  each  case 
thereafter.  All  authorities  and  notaries  public  who  dispatch 
documents  expressing  values  were  to  use  the  term,  "  dol- 
lar "  and  its  decimal  subdivisions,  not  allowing  even  for 
the  purpose  of  being  more  explicit,  the  mention  of  coins 
of  the  old  style,  under  a  penalty  of  a  fine  of  from  $5.00  to 
$100.00;  these  regulations  also  ordered  the  forward  accept- 
ance of  copper  coins  to  the  amount  of  25  cs.  in  each  pay- 
ment. 


154  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

By  decree  of  May  31st,  1889,  the  circulation  of  all  coins 
that  had,  by  being  filed,  bored  through  or  by  any  cause 
other  than  usage,  lost  the  legal  weight,  was  prohibited. 

On  December  9th,  1890,  the  Department  of  Fomenta- 
tion presented  to  Congress  a  project  embracing  important 
moditications  to  the  monetary  law.  It  proposed  that  coins 
should  continue  to  be  the  same  type  as  they  were,  but  that 
the  designs  be  improved,  and  that  the  references  to  the 
value  of  the  coin  and  the  ley  of  the  metal  be  changed  so  as 
to  read  "  one  dollar"  instead  of  "  8  reales  "  and  that  the 
ley  be  expressed  in  decimal  fractions,  in  place  of  "  Dine- 
ros  and  Granos  "  and  the  edge  to  be  milled  instead  of 
being  as  it  was  ;  all  fractional  coins  should  be  stamped  as  the 
unit,  and  bear  such  distinctive  signs  as  might  be  found 
necessary. 

Gold  coins  on  their  obverse  like  silver  ones,  were  to  bear 
the  escutcheon  of  the  nation,  and  on  their  reverse  the  bust 
of  Hidalgo,  with  their  respective  inscriptions.  The  copper 
coins  were  to  remain  unchanged. 

In  this  project  the  creation  of  a  new  silver  coin  was  sug- 
gested of  the  denomination  of  20  cents,  weighing  5 
grammes  415  milligrammes  and  the  suspension  of  the  coin- 
age of  the  25  cent  piece  ;  subdivisions  of  the  dollar  would 
thereby  be  20  cs.,  10  cs.  and  5  cs.  With  reference  to  gold 
coins,  it  was  proposed  to  raise  the  ley  from  0.875  to  0.900 
that  the  legal  proportion  between  gold  and  silver  be  from 
1  to  15^  and  that  the  coins  be  of  the  denominations  of 
$5.00,  $10.00  and  $20.00,  the  coinage  of  $1.00  and  $2.50 
pieces  being  abolished.  The  project  also  established  the 
weight  and  diameter  of  gold  and  silver  coins,  as  the  differ- 
ence allowed  in  their  ley,  and  provided  likewise  in  regard 
to  the  copper  coins. 

The  above  project  is  still  pending  before  Congress. 

In  order  that  all  coinage  should  be  uniform  in  the  mints 
of  the  Republic  the  Department  of  Fomentation  contracted 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


155 


on  the  25th  of  August,  188C,  with  Mr.  Fernando  Sayago 
for  the  establishment  in  the  mint  of  the  city  of  Mexico  of 
a  «'  Central  Department  of  Engraving  "  by  virtue  of  which 
contract  Mr.  Sayago  obligated  himself  to  deliver  properly 
packed  and  to  the  utter  satisfaction  of  the  interventor 
appointed  by  the  government,  such  dies  made  to  strictly 
conform  with  the  type  adopted  by  law  as  might  be  applied 
for  by  the  respective  sub-mints.  The  lessees  of  said  mints 
were  to  make  their  requisitions  to  the  Department  of  Fo- 
mentation, which  through  its  interventor  would  cause  them 
to  be  filled ;  the  new  dies  being  changed  on  receipt  of  the 
old  ones.  Each  mint  pays  $50.00  for  a  pair  of  dies,  one 
obverse  and  one  reverse,  or  two  obverses  and  two  reverses 
constituting  a  pair. 


EXHIBITIONS. 


IX.  The  Government  of  the  Republic  has  seen  the  im- 
portance of  exhibitions  in  making  known  the  riches  of 
every  kind  which  the  country  contains  and  the  greater  part 
of  which  was  unknown  to  the  civilized  world.  It  also  saw 
their  importance  in  fostering  and  stimulating  the  agricul- 
tural and  mining  industries  of  Mexico  and  in  bringing  to 
perfection  these  branches  of  human  activity.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  it  has  always  been  disposed  to  aid  as  far  as  lay 
in  its  power  either  by  subventions  or  the  granting  of  im- 
munity from  taxes  or  by  any  other  means,  these  labor  com- 
petitions whether  they  have  taken  place  in  the  Republic  or 
in  foreign  countries.  In  addition  to  being  represented  at 
the  exhibitions  of  Paris,  Venice,  St.  Louis,  Matansas 
and  Buenos  Ayres  it   has  also  exhibited   in   the  following 

abroad : 

Exhibilion  of  Philadelphia.  In  order  to  celebrate  the 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  independence  of  the  United 
States  of  America  the  Congress  of  that  nation  decreed  an 


156  THE    KICHES    OF   MEXICO 

International  Exhibition  of  arts,  manufactures,  and  a-^ri- 
cultural  and  raining  products.  It  was  held  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia  in  the  year  1876. 

The  President,  U.  S.  Grant,  issued  on  the  3d  of  Jul}', 
1873,  the  proclamation  referring  to  it,  and  in  virtue  of  a 
resolution  approved  of  by  the  Congress  on  the  5th  of  July 
of  the  same  year,  an  invitation  was  sent  to  every  country 
on  the  globe. 

The  Mexican  Minister  at  Washington  received  from  the 
Secretary  of  State  the  circular  relating  to  the  5th  of  July 
and  bearing  the  date  of  the  5th  of  August  following,  and 
the  Minister  of  the  United  States  in  Mexico  directed  a  note 
to  the  Foreign  Secretarj^ship  inviting,  in  the  name  of  his 
country's  Government,  the  Government  and  people  of 
Mexico  to  take  part  in  the  exhibition  which  would  be  held 
from  the  19th  of  April  till  the  19th  of  October,  1876. 

On  the  following  day  an  answer  was  given  cordially 
accepting  the  invitation  of  theNorth  American  Government 
and  immediately  the  Interior  Secretaryship  began  to  dictate 
the  means  necessary  to  organize  the  preliminary  works.  In 
1874  the  Exhibition  Committee  was  appointed  under  the 
chairmanship  of  Sr.  Lie  Manuel  Romero  Rubio,  and  also 
the  commission  which  was  to  represent  Mexico  in  the 
celebration  ;  convenient  publications  were  also  written 
in  order  to  show  the  desire  that  existed  to  make  known 
amons:  foreijrn  nations  the  natural  and  industrial  resources 
of  which  Mexico  is  possessed,  and  regulations  were  made  to 
organize  the  works  in  the  Republic. 

Hitherto  Mexico  had  not  fijrured  on  a  grand  scale  in  the 
exhibitions  of  other  countries.  She  had  to  contend  at  the 
very  beginning  with  certaindifficulties  inasmuch  as  she  had 
to  calculate  the  expenses  which  had  to  be  incurred  in  order 
that  the  exhibits  of  Mexicans  who  lived  in  the  various  States 
of  the  Republic  might  be  brought  to  the  capital,  and  this 
had  to  be  done  by  dillioult  roads  and  with  heavy  transport 


AND   ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  157 

expenses  and  from  thence  they  had  to  be  exported  to  their 
destination. 

The  result,  however,  of  the  Mexican  Exhibition  in  Phila- 
delphia was  sufficiently  satisfactory. 

In  the  Mining  and  Metallurgical  Department  samples  were 
exhibited  of  native  sulphur  of  bromirite  and  a  sample  of  a 
meteoric  stone  weighing  4,000  lbs;  collections  of  lead  and 
silver  ores,  samples  of  silver  producing  galena,  geological 
collections  of  Mexican  onyx  and  a  mass  of  coppered  silver, 
in  the  manufacture  department  were  displayed;  salts  of 
sodium,  essences,  wax  candles,  indigo,  porcelain,  furniture 
of  Austrian  imitation  and  form,  gloves,  embroidery,  artifi- 
cial flowers,  ixtle  (paper)  bark,  and  wax-works. 

Amons  education  and  science  works  were  exhibited  scieu- 
tific  books  on  surveying,  topography  and  calculus,  works 
on  Mexican  fossils,  philology  and  the  public  instruction  of 
Mexico,  collections  of  maps,  etc.  Among  the  art  exhibits 
were  oil  paintings  and  photographic  portraits. 

In  the  agricultural  department  were  seen  collections  of 
woods,  of  corns,  grass,  coffee,  cultivated  tobaccos,  vanilla, 
vegetable  wax,  sugars,  chocolate,  liquors,  Parras  wines, 
henequen  fabrics  and  cords,  maguey  fibers,  carmine  and 
cochineal.  In  horticulture,  various  herbs  and  a  collection 
of  botanical  maps,  etc. 

The  Mexican  exhibitors  obtained  in  the  exhibition  73 
diplomas  and  47  medals,  whilst  the  Government  of  Mexico 
received  an  extraordinary  diploma. 

The  distribution  of  prizes  was  performed  by  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Eepublic  in  the  National  Theater  on  the  22d  of 
July,  1877. 

The  Exhihition  of  New  Orleans.  The  Centenary  Uni- 
versal Industrial  and  Cotton  Exhibition  of  the  city  of  New 
Orleans  was  proclaimed  on  the  10th  of  September,  1883, 
by  the  President,  M.  Chester  A.  Arthur  by  virtue  of  a 
law    of  the  Congress  dated  the  10th  of  February  of  the 


158  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

same  year,  and  was  inaugurated  on  the  10th  of  December, 
18^4.  Its  ohjcc't  was  to  celebrate  the  centenary  of  the  first 
remittance  of  cotton  as  an  article  of  commerce  sent  by  the 
United  States  to  Europe  in  1784  ;  but  the  cotton  exhibition 
was  thrown  open  to  the  exhibits  of  cotton  in  all  its  condi- 
tions of  cultivation  and  manufacture  and  to  all  the  arts, 
manufactures,  mining  and  agricultural  products  of  the 
world. 

In  pursuance  of  a  decree  of  the  Congress  an  invitation 
dated  the  31st  of  October,  1883,  was  sent  to  the  Mexican 
Government  through  the  United  States  minister  at  Mexico 
and  in  the  name  of  the  North  American  Union  asking  Mexico 
to  send  representatives  and  take  part  in  the  said  exhibition. 

After  accepting  this  invitation  on  the  7th  of  December 
following  the  Mexican  Government  appointed  General 
Porlirio  Diaz  as  general  commissioner  in  the  Republic  to 
take  charge  of  the  organization  of  the  preparatory  works 
for  Mexico's  participation  in  the  exhi))ition.  A  directing 
committee  of  the  general  commission  was  constituted  and 
the  necessary  special  commissions  were  appointed. 

According  to  the  plan  adopted  by  the  commission  the 
participation  of  Mexico  was  to  be  secured  by  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  superiors  of  the  Federation,  by  that  of  the 
States  and  of  the  general  public.  In  this  wa}-  a  complete 
picture  would  l)e  shown  of  the  natural  resources  of  the 
country,  its  scientific,  industrial,  artistic  and  commercial 
progress;  whilst  the  specialty  in  which  each  State  excelled 
in  any  of  these  branches  would  be  clearly  marked  as  well  as 
the  productions  of  the  special  industries  established  at  dif- 
ferent places  in  the  Kcpublic. 

Mexico  responded  in  a  liberal  manner  to  the  invitation 
sent  to  her  by  the  United  States  Government  and  got  ready, 
with  great  expense,  her  best  natural,  industrial  and  artistic 
products  and  thus  her  exhibition  surpassed  the  hopes  of  her 
own  jx'ople  and  of  strangers. 


AND    ITS    IXSTITlTIOxXS. 


159 


The  Mexican  ti'iiiii  which  brought  the  first  remittance  of 
exhibits  sent  by  Mexico  to  the  Universal  Competition  ar- 
rived at  New  Orleans  on  the  27th  of  November  at  midday 
and  was  saluted  in  its  transit  with  demonstrations  of  wel- 
come by  the  American  people.  Among  the  buildings  of 
the  exhibition,  Mexico  occupied  an  area  of  40,000  square 
feet  and  here  were  exhibited  the  agricultural  products  of 
every  climate,  the  finest  fibers,  precious  woods,  marbles, 
tiles  or  other  building  materials,  essence  oils,  liquors,  wines, 
preserves,  sweets,  fine  sugars,  coffee  and  cocoa  of  the  high- 
est quality,  tanned  skins  which  were  taken  for  cloth,  sarapes 
and  the  finest  mufflers,  cotton  cloths,  works  in  silver  and  in 
wax,  carriages  and  trappings  exquisitely  made,  furniture, 
collections  of  books,  maps,  atlases,  engravings  and  photo- 
graphs. 

In  the  fine  art  galleries  were  to  be  seen  sixty  oil  paint- 
ings, collections  of  amulets  and  medals,  marble  busts,  etc., 
which  were  all  objects  of  admiration.  In  the  ladies' 
special  section,  the  laces,  point  laces,  embroidery,  open 
work,  inlaid  work  and  artificial  flowers  roused  the  interest 
of  merchants  engaged  in  these  branches. 

In  the  horticultural  gallery  were  shown  more  than  900 
specimens  of  living  plants,  700  species  of  textile  plants 
and  400  orchids  of  rare  forms,  colors  and  perfumes;  singing 
birds  of  all  kinds,  parrots  and  pheasants. 

The  octagonal  pavilion  constructed  for  the  Government 
of  iron  andglass  and  in  the  Arabian  style  contained  samples 
from  the  Mexican  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron  and 
other  metals  of  unrivaled  riches  and  of  a  very  notable 
scientific  classification. 

The  music  of  the  8th  Regiment  of  the  Mexican  Army 
under  the  direction  of  Captain  Encarnacion  Payen  was 
listened  to  with  enthusiasm  and  admiration  by  the  visitors 
to  the  exhibition. 

The  skilled  musicians  of  the  band,  equally  with  Sr.  Payen 


IGO  Till-:    KICUES    OF    MEXICO 

were  the  object  of  frequent  ovations,  applause  unci  honor- 
able distinctions. 

The  29th  of  May,  1885,  was  the  day  dedicated  to  Mexico 
in  the  exhibition  l)y  the  authorities  of  Louisiana  and  of 
the  city  of  New  Orleans,  the  directory  corainittce  of  the 
exhibition,  the  commissioners  of  the  United  States  and  the 
people. 

The  festival  which  was  organized  had  for  its  object  to  show 
the  high  appreciation  the  above  mentioned  bodies  and 
people  had  for  the  Mexican  exhibition  and  for  the  liberal 
and  generous  way  in  which  the  Government  and  Mexican 
people  had  contributed  to  its  success. 

Mr.  Burke,  General  Director  of  the  exhibition,  expressed 
himself  in  eloquent  and  very  honorable  terms  about  the 
high  state  of  advancement  attained  by  Mexico,  and  her 
future  prosperity. 

The  solemn  distribution  of  the  prizes  gained  by  Mexico 
at  this  exhibition  was  performed  by  the  President  of  the 
Republic  on  the  5th  of  May,  1887.  At  the  same  time 
were  distributed  the  prizes  gained  by  the  Mexican  exhibit- 
ors in  the  Continental  Exhibition  of  Buenos  Ayres. 

The  prizes  won  by  Mexico  distributed  among  the  various 
States,  Federal  District  and  Territories,  are  as  follows:  — 

Aguascalienies,  4  prizes  and  3  honorable  mentions; 
Ca77i2JecIie,  3  prizes  and  4  honorable  mentions;  Coahuila, 
9  prizes  and  3  honorable  mentions  ;  CoUnia,  6  prizes  and 
9  honorable  mentions;  ChiapaSy  5  prizes  and  10  hon- 
orable mentions ;  Chihuahua,  6  prizes  and  1  honorable 
mention  ;  Federal  District,  67  prizes,  27  honorable  men- 
tions, 17  diplomas  and  1  certificate  of  merit;  Durango,  12 
prizes  and  5  honorable  mentions;  Guanajuato,^  prizes 
and  3  honorable  mentions;  Guerrero,  1  honorable  men- 
tion; Hidalgo,  8  prizes  and  3  mentions;  Jalisco,  1(5  prizes 
and  ()  honorable  mentions;  Mexico,  13  prizes  and  t)  men- 
tiou^j ;  Michoacan,  12  prizes,  9  mentions,  and   1  diploma  ; 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  161 

Moi'elos,  5  prizes  and  5  mentions;  JSfuevo  Leon,  4  prizes 
and  1  honorable  mention;  Oaxaca,  13  prizes  and  21  hon- 
orable mentions;  Puebla,  12  prizes  and  10  honorable 
mentions  ;  Quere(aro,  4  prizes  and  4  mentions ;  S'an  Luis 
Potosi,  15  prizes  and  10  mentions  ;  iSonora,  10  prizes  and 
9  mentions  ;  Tabasco,  4 prizes  and  3  mentions;  Tamaulipas, 
2  mentions  ;  Tlaxcahi,  3  prizes  and  1  honorable  mention  ; 
Veracruz,  Grand  Diploma  of  honor,  23  prizes,  13  hon- 
orable mentions,  2  diplomas  and  1  certificate  of  merit; 
Yucatan,  8  prizes,  6  honorable  mentions  and  1  diploma; 
Zacatecas,  7  prizes  and  3  honorable  mentions;  Loioer 
California,  6  prizes ;  Tepic,  2  prizes  and  3  honorable 
mentions.  Altogether  there  were:  1  Grand  Diploma  of 
honor,  282  prizes,  181  honorable  mentions,  36  diplomas, 
and  2  certificates  of  merit.     Total,  502. 

Paris  Exhibition.  The  Minister  of  the  French  Republic 
in  a  note  dated  the  15th  of  April,  1887,  in  the  name  of  his 
Government  invited  the  Government  of  Mexico  to  contrib- 
ute its  products  to  the  Universal  Exhibition  which  would 
be  inaugurated  in  Paris  on  the  5th  of  May,  1889.  The 
Government  wishing  to  know  beforehand  the  exhibits  which 
its  different  States  and  Federal  Territories  would  be  able 
to  contribute,  delayed  its  answer  till  the  27th  of  December, 
1887,  when  it  accepted  the  invitation. 

The  organizing  commission  of  the  Mexican  exhibition  in 
Paris  actively  began  its  labors  by  appointing  commissions 
to  draw  up  and  publish  special  regulations,  to  form  an 
estimate  of  the  probable  expenses  of  the  exhibition.  It 
also  sent  appeals  to  the  railway  and  ship  companies 
and  to  the  Governors  of  the  different  States  asking  their 
definite  co-operation  in  securing  the  objects  of  the  commis- 
sion. 

The  co-operation  of  the  nation  was  obtained  by  means 
of  the  combined  action  of  the  government  officials,  com- 
prising  the    Secretaryships   of   State,    and  the  State   and 

11 


162  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

Federal  District  Governors,  and  the  lending  politicians  of 
the  territories  and  the  private  exhibitors. 

The  direction  of  the  works  was  placed  under  charge  of 
the  Interior  Secretaryship,  whence  invitations  were  sent  to 
the  Governors  and  leading  politicians  of  the  territories 
asking  them  to  contribute  to  the  success  of  the  Mexican 
exhibition  and  to  organize  the  necessary  works  in  their 
respective  localities.  Sr.  M.  Diaz  Mimiaga  was  appointed 
Delegate  of  the  Government  in  Paris,  and  special  commis- 
sions were  formed  in  conformity  with  the  new  groups 
established  by  the  French  regulations.  The  Interior  Secre- 
taryship resolved  that  a  commission  of  architects  should 
take  in  hand  the  project  of  the  building  and  adopt  the 
style  of  some  of  the  old  monuments  of  the  country. 

The  space  occupied  by  Mexico  in  the  Exhibition  was 
about  2,100  square  metres  in  front  of  the  Fine  Art  Pavilion 
and  on  the  right  side  of  the  Eiffel  Tower. 

Mexico  exhibited  oil  paintings,  sculptures  and  medal 
engravings,  drawings  and  models  of  architecture,  works  on 
education,  and  primary,  secondary,  higher  and  technical 
teaching,  books,  stationery  binding,  art  materials,  photo- 
graphs and  photographic  apparatus,  musical  instruments, 
charts  and  Geographical  and  Cosmographical  instruments, 
Toi)<)graphy  and  Statistics,  ordinary  and  elegant  garniture, 
works  of  tapestry  and  decoration,  wax  works,  artistic 
bronzes,  works  of  art  in  castings  and  in  embossed  metals, 
moiocco-leather  works,  baskets  and  brushes,  yarn  and 
cotton,  linen,  hemp,  smooth  and  carded  wool  fabrics,  silks 
and  silk  fabrics,  lace,  tulles,  embroidery  and  laces,  bonnets 
and  linen,  wearing  apparel  of  both  sexes,  jewelry, 
portal)le  arms,  objects  for  journey  and  country  use,  toys, 
the  products  of  mining  works,  of  metallurg}',  products  of 
explorations  and  forest  industrfes,  products  of  hunting, 
products  of  lishing,  and  fishing  tackle  and  netting, 
unalimentary    agricultural    produce,    chemical    and    drug 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


1G3 


products,  leather  and  hides,  materials  and  processes  of 
mining  works  and  metallurgy,  materials  and  processes  of 
agricultural  manufactures  and  food  industries,  mechanical 
nrachines  and  apparatus,  tools,  carriages  and  wagons, 
harness,  railway  materials,  material  and  processes  of  civil 
engineering,  of  public  works,  and  architecture,  hygiene 
and  public  sanitary  arrangements,  material  and  processes 
of  the  military  art,  cereals,  farinaceous  products,  fatty 
substances,  goods,  milks,  meats  and  fishes,  vegetables  and 
fruits,  sugars  and  confectionery,  chocolates,  sweets, 
carpentry,"liquors,  fermented  drinks,  beer,  agricultural 
statistics',  method  and  material  for  agricultural  teaching, 
materials  and  processes  of  rural  and  forest  works,  useful 
and  noxious  insects,  flowers  and  ornamental  plants. 

The  Mexican  exhibitors  in  this  International  Competition 
won  19  Grand  Prizes,  96  gold  medals,  233  silver  ones,  333 
bronze  and  321  honorable  mentions.  Total,  1,002  prizes. 
There  were  also  awarded  to  them  57  medals  and  com- 
memorative diplomas  and  three  unforeseen  prizes  granted 
as  rewards  by  the  International  Judges. 


NATIONAL    EXHIBITIONS. 


X.  Several  exhibitions  have  been  held  in  the  various 
States  of  the  Kepublic  and  special  ones  of  horticulture  ia 
some  of  the  towns  of  the  Federal  District.  All  have  been 
remarkable,  both  for  the  number  of  exhibitors  and  for  the 
variety  and  good  quality  of  the  objects  shown.  In  these 
exhibitions  the  General  Government  has  co-operated  by 
sending  certain  sums  of  money  as  subventions. 

The^hief  national  exhibitions  held  were  the  following  :  — 

General  Exhibition  of  the  Industry  of  Meo:ico .    This  was 

held  in  the  capital  of  the  Eepublic  between  the  1st  and  the 

5th  of  November,  1853.     At  this  time  D.  Joaquin  Velazquez 

de  Leon  was  Secretary  of  Fomentation,  and  General  D. 


1(j4  the   EICHES  vOF   mkxico 

Antonio  L6pez  de  Santa  Ana,  Piesiuent  of  the  Republic. 
The  objects  exhibited  were  divided  into  four  classes:  First. 
Plants,  ilowers,  fruits  and  vegetables.  Second.  Agricul- 
tural products.  Third.  Artistic  industry,  and  Fourth, 
factory  industries.  Two  halls  were  made  for  the  objects 
to  be  exhibited,  one  in  the  center  of  Constitution  Square, 
which  was  used  for  the  prizes  and  for  the  exhibition  of 
first-class  articles,  and  the  other  in  the  passages  of  the 
University  where  all  the  other  industrial  articles  were  dis- 
played.    The  number  of  exhibits  was  about  163. 

The  National  Exhihition  of  Mexico  of  the  year  1875 
was  held  in  a  beautiful  palace  expressly  built  in  the 
Alameda  of  the  capital  of  the  Republic.  The  States  that 
chiefly  attracted  attention  by  their  products  were  Campeche, 
Hidalgo,  Mexico,  Morelos,  Fuebla,  San  Luis  Potosi, 
Yucatan,  Zacatecas  and  the  Federal  District.  The  exhib- 
itors were  granted  37  gold  medals,  96  silver  ones,  80  of 
bronze  and  92  honorable  mentions.  Many  of  the  exhibits 
were  sent  to  the  International  Exhibition  of  Philadelphia 
in  1876. 

The  Merida  Exhibition  was  celebrated  in  the  May  of 
1879.  The  six  halls  which  the  building  contained  were 
divided  into  departments,  one  of  which  was  devoted  to 
exhibits  sent  from  Mexico  and  the  rest  were  assigned  to 
each  of  the  political  divisions  of  the  State,  Hunucma,  Temax, 
Espita,  Merida,  Aconceh,  Motul,  Maxanu,  Ticul,  Valladolid, 
Sotuta,  Fizinim,  Izamal,  Tiskokob  and  Tekar.  The  number 
of  exhibitors  was  about  509  and  the  exhil)its  about  1,0;>8. 
The  prizes  were  silver  and  bronze  medals  and  honorable 
mentions.  Of  the  first,  6  were  granted  to  exhibitors,  of 
the  second  10  whilst  there  were  56  honorable  mentions. 

The  Puehla  Exhihition.  The  second  exhibition  of  the 
Pucbla  Society  of  Artisans  was  held  in  the  town  of  Puobla 
in  the  month  of  April,  1880.  The  ordinary  prizes  awarded 
by  the  qualifying  judges  were  192.     First  class,  consisting 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  165 

of  gilt  medals,  251,  second  class,  which  were  silvered  medals, 
145,  third  class,  which  wore  bronze  medals,  and  167  honor- 
able mentions.  In  addition  to  these  prizes  won  by  exhibit- 
ors, other  extraordinary  and  special  ones  were  awarded  to 
certain  persons,  companies  and  corporations  which  had 
most  distinguished  themselves  in  advancing  the  sciences, 
arts  and  industries  of  Mexico  and  likewise  to  the  Governor 
who  had  given  the  greatest  impulse  to  material  improve- 
ments and  public  instruction.  The  Government  gave  the 
exhibition  a  subvention  of  $2,000. 

The  ToJuca  Exhibition.  By  a  decree  of  the  14th  of 
October,  1882,  the  Congress  of  the  State  of  Mexico  author- 
ized the  Governor  to  convoke  an  exhibition  of  the  native 
products,  of  mining,  agriculture,  industry,  sciences  and  fine 
arts  which  should  be  held  in  the  town  of  Toluca.  It  also 
empowered  him  to  spend  money  to  the  amount  of  4,000 
dollars  of  the  general  funds  of  the  State  and  to  adopt  means 
to  raise  the  necessary  money  for  the  said  exhibition.  The 
building  was  constructed  inside  what  was  formerly  called 
the  market  and  was  175  metres  long  by  twenty-three  broad. 
The  cost  of  it  came  to  more  than  twenty  thousand  dollars. 

The  solemn  opening  of  the  exhibition,  the  first  that  was 
ever  held  in  the  State  of  Mexico,  took  place  on  the  2d  of 
April,  1883. 

Montet^ey  Industrial  Exhibition.  Two  exhibitions  have 
now  been  held  in  the  capital  of  Nuevo  Leon ;  one  in  the 
September  of  1880  and  the  other  in  the  same  month  of  the 
year  1888.  Both  were  initiated  by  the  society  called  "  The 
Grand  Circle  of  Workmen  of  Monterrey  "  which  asked  and 
obtained  from  the  Congress  of  the  State  a  subvention  of 
two  thousand  dollars  in  order  to  bring  each  of  them  to  a 
successful  issue. 

The  latter  of  these  exhibitions  was  held  in  the  building 
of  the  society  situated  in  the  square  of  the  Cinco  de  Mayo. 
Two  hundred  and  fifteen  exhibitors  took  part  in  it  and  they 


16G  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

"were  awarded  15  gold  medals,  80  second  class,  48  third 
class  and  22  honorable  mentions.  A  great  part  of  the 
objects  shown  in  it  were  sent  to  the  fair  and  international 
exhibition  of  San  Antonio  (Texas)  which  took  place  in  the 
November  of  1888,  and  where  they  obtained  a  brilliant  suc- 
cess. 

The  exhibitors  were  granted  7  gold  and  18  silver 
medals,  40  diplomas,  and  a  diploma  and  gold  medal  which 
the  Directory  Committee  presented  to  the  Governor  on  ac- 
count of  the  important  part  which  the  workmen  and 
factory    hands    of    the    State   took   in  the  said  exhibition. 

Queretaro  Exhibition  was  decreed  on  the  8th  of  December, 
1880,  V)y  the  Congress  of  the  State,  and  was  opened  on  the 
30th  of  April,  1882,  by  General  Pacheco,  Secretary  of  Fo- 
mentation. Eight  extensive  halls  contained  in  the  industrial 
palace,  and  in  their  center  Avere  displayed  huge  cases  con- 
taining the  5,000  exhibits  of  1,400  exhibitors.  The  exhibi- 
tion was  closed  on  the  20th  of  August,  1882,  after  40,000 
visitors  had  passed  through  the  gates.  The  General  Gov- 
ernment gave  the  exhibition  a  subvention  of  $2,000  whilst 
the  government  of  the  State  gave  4,000  ;  355  first  class 
prizes,  225  second,  128  third  and  184  honorable  mentions 
were  awarded.  A  part  was  taken  in  this  exhibition  also 
by  the  towns  of  Mexico,  Pucbla,  Orizai)a,  Guanajuato,  Sala- 
manca, Irapuato,  Ailende,  Celaya,  Salvatierra,  Guadalupe, 
Zacatecas,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Durango,  Tepic,  Monterrey  and 
others. 

Tlie  Guadalajara  Exhibition.  A  committee  of  private 
individuals  presided  over  by  the  Governor  of  the  State,  Sr. 
General  Ramon  Corona,  discussed  the  question  of  holding 
an  exhibition  which  would  make  known  to  visitors  to  the 
city  of  Gua<lalajara  the  i)rogress  and  resources  of  the 
State.  The  place  chosen  for  the  exhibition  was  known  by 
the  name  of  Alliondiga  or  the  old  school  of  arts.  This 
was  jn-opcrlv   i<'j)aiicd    and  on   the   15th     of    May,     1888, 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  167 

the  opening  took  place  on  the  inauguration  day  of  the 
Guadalajara  railway.  The  Secretary  of  Fomentation  gave 
$1,000  to  the  exhibition. 

Articles  Aiuarded   Prizes. 

in  the  various  exhibitions. 

The  chief  articles  which  have  been  awarded  prizes  in  the 
national  exhibitions  are  the  followins:: 

Cereals.  Cascabillo  coffee  of  Colima,  wheat,  beans,  rice, 
husks,  and  Indian  corn.  Tubercules.  A  specimen  of  beet- 
root, red  variety.  Medicinal  plants.  A  collection  of 
plants,  vanilla,  sarsaparilla,  nopal  gum,  chaca  grass,  chan 
mucilage  seed.  Plants  and  substances  used  in  the  industries. 
Sugar  canes,  Aztectea,  higuerilla  (castor  bean),  and 
Yucatan  bark,  nuts  and  saffron.  Dried  fruits  and  pi'eserves. 
A  collection  of  preserved  fruits,  peppers.  Textile  plants. 
Henequen,  cotton,  ixtle  and  agave.  Coloring  plarits  and 
their  products.  Indigo,  saffron,  orchella,  weed,  logwood, 
achiote.  Pai'k,  seeds,  etc.,  used  as  drugs.  All  classes  of 
barks  and  seeds.  Building  timber.  A  collection  of  tim- 
bers remarkable  for  their  variety  and  richness,  mahogany, 
tampeceran,  rose-wood,  tepehuaje  and  orange  wood  attract- 
ing special  attention.  Tobaccos,  cigars  and  cigarettes. 
Every  class  made.  Gums,  resins,  etc.  White  India  rubber. 
Vegetable  wax,  vegetable  oils.  Olive  oil,  higuerilla  and 
cocoa-oil.  Plows.  Wheat  flour,  yuca  starch,  and  sago. 
Wines  and  liquors.  Sherry,  parras  wines,  tequila,  Rhine, 
grape  brandy,  pulque,  tovola,  maguey  brandy,  quince  wine, 
gin  and  various  liquors.  Sugar.  Refined  and  yellow  sugar. 
Cotton  fabrics.  Marronesas,  cloaks,  saile  de  menaje, 
coverlets,  prints,  smooth  oil-cloth,  spun  fabrics,  driles, 
poplins,  mufflers,  vests  and  drawers,  carpets,  table-cloths, 
cloth  and  cashmeres.  /Silks.  Mascadas,  bufandas  and 
other  woven    silks;    spun    silks,  worked    with  skeins  and 


168  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

dyed.  Hemipterous  and  ho7)iopierous  insects.  Cactus  or 
nopal  cochiueal,  originaiy  of  Mexico  and  carmine. 
Tortoise  shell.  Tortoise  shell  and  art  works  of  same. 
Tanned  and  jjrepared  skins.  Kid  skins  for  gloves,  grain 
shagreen,  ziiela,  varnished  skins,  English  imitation 
skins,  stamped  chive  gamuzas,  lamb  gamiizas,  dressed 
sheep  skins,  sashes,  flowers  on  leather  and  grenetine. 
Wax.  Beeswax.  JF^ats.  Varnish  of  the  insect  called  kum 
of  Yucatan,  candles.  Prepared  wool .  Cashmeres  and  other 
woolen  fabrics.  Mining.  Calcareous  formations,  stalac- 
tites (tecali),  collections  of  rocks  and  fossils,  sulphur, 
industrial  metallurgical  collection,  samples  of  Veracruz 
coal,  coal  and  anthracite  of  Tecamatlan  in  the  State  of 
Puebla,  collection  of  the  mercury  mines  of  the  Sierra, 
Queretaro,  cast  and  forged  iron,  marbles,  mineralogical 
collection  of  Zacoalpam,  black  lead  and  tequesquite  from 
the  Salada  works  in  the  State  of  Zacatecas.  Science  and 
art  instruments.  Perfected  plough,  agrometer,  apparatus 
for  collecting  sulphureous  gas,  hot  air  machine,  models  of 
locomovils,  locomotives  and  tender,  various  telegraphic 
and  agricultural  instruments.  Enamels.  Different  enam- 
els, application  of  enamel  to  photography,  and  the  invention 
of  the  application  of  chromo-llthography  or  porcelain  deco- 
ration. Wax  works,  pottery  and  glass.  Various  pieces  per- 
fectly baked  and  equally  well  enameled  and  different  pieces 
of  glass  recommended  by  their  size,  cleanliness  and  color. 
Chemical  2)roducts.  A  collection  of  turpentine  products, 
sulphate  of  iron,  matches  and  a  collection  of  suits  and 
saltpetres.  Fine  arts.  Various  paintings,  statues,  archi- 
tectural designs,  hollow  and  lined  engravings  and  filigree 
works.  Various  objects.  Hats,  dyers'  coppers,  carriages, 
sets  of  teeth,  tortoise-shell  works,  brass  beds,  glasses  and 
models  of  glass,  glass  etchings,  mosaic  incrustations,  inlaid 
work  in  wood,  ivory  works,  furniture,  trappings,  coach- 
harness,  riding-saddles  and  cleats,  silk  masks,  embroidery. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  169 

leather  baors,  printing  type,  boxes,  blank  books,  lithographs, 
chromo-lithographs,  photo-lithographs  and  various^manu- 
factures  of  henequeu  and  musical  instruments. 

COMMERCIAL    MUSEUM    OF    GUADALAJARA. 

The  formation  of  this  museum  was  granted  by  Mr. 
Mariano  Bareena,  Governor  of  the  State  of  Jalisco,  in  view 
of  the  continually  increasing  desire  to  make  known  to 
traveling  merchants  or  simple  tourists  the  industrial  improve- 
ments and  the  elements  of  local  wealth  which  existed  in  the 
State  and  to  widen  the  field  of  action  for  commercial  trans- 
actions. It  was  inaugurated  on  the  16th  of  September, 
1890,  on  the  lower  story  of  the  Engineer  School,  formerly 
the  College  of  San' Juan. 

This  museum  of  industrial  products,  elementary  materials 
and  of  mining,  the  first  of  its  kind  which  was  established 
in  the  country,  is  intended  to  show  and  explain  the  produc- 
tion of  the  different  places  in  the  State  and  to  stimulate 
progress  and  perfection  in  the  various  industries  by  adapting 
them  to  the  necessities  and  tastes  of  consumers.  The 
objects  shown  and  grouped  in  order  have  on  one  side  the 
dates  referring  to  their  origin,  qualities,  prices  and  other 
accounts  sufficient  to  make  them  known. 


170  THE   KICHES    OF   MEXICO 


CHAPTEE  Y. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  WORKS. 

I.  The  ]:iw  passed  by  Congress  on  May  8th,  1891,  and 
promulgated  the  same  month  and  year,  increased  the 
Secretaryships  of  State  for  the  dispatch  of  the  business  of 
the  Federal  Administration,  to  seven,  making  proper 
distribution  of  the  business  in  question,  and  providing  that 
in  doubtful  or  cases  out  of  the  ordinary,  the  President  of 
the  Republic  should  decide  through  the  medium  of  the 
Secretary  of  Relations,  to  which  department  the  matter 
should  be  referred  for  final  disposition.  The  law  of 
February  23d,  18G1,  which  had  formerly  governed  the 
subject,  had  distributed  the  branches  of  the  public 
administration  among  the  six  Departments  of  State  then 
existing,  namely  :  Department  of  Foreign  Relations,  In- 
terior Department,  Department  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruc- 
tion, Department  of  Colonization,  Industry  and  Commerce, 
Department  of  Finance,  and  War  and  Navy  Department. 
The  new  law  of  1891,  created,  as  has  been  stated,  another, 
that  of  Communication  and  Public  "Works,  to  which  was 
assigned  the  disposition  of  the  following  branches  which  had 
heretofore  formed  part  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Interior 
Department  and  Department  of  Colonization,  Industry  and 
Commerce,  viz.  :  Interior  Post  Offices,  Maritime  Mediums 
of  Communication,  or  Steamship  Mails,  Universal  Postal 
Union,  Telegraphs,  Telephones,  Railroads,  Harbor  works. 
Lighthouses,  Highways,  Promenades,  Ports,  Rivers, 
Bridges,  Lakes  and  Canals,  Domestic  Service  and  Works 
in  the  National  and  Chapultepec  Palaces  and  the  Drainage 
of  the  Valley  of  Mexico. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


171 


The  new  Department  commenced  its  labors  in  the  month 
of  July,  181)1. 

The  f^reater  portion  of  the  branches  of  the  administra- 
tion which  pertain  to  this  department,  and  which  the  plan 
of  the  work  requires  to  be  treated  herein,  have  been 
included  in  the  respective  chapters  dedicated  to  Commer- 
cial Development  and  to  the  Departments  of  the  Interior 
and  Colonization,  Industry  and  Commerce. 

*  Vide  Book  VI.    Public  Administration. 


DRAINAGE   OF   THE   VALLEY   OF   MEXICO. 
Mex.  A.  T.  D.  Los  Siglos. 


172  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 


CHAPTEE   YI. 

TREASURY  AND  PUBLIC  CREDIT  DEPARTMENT. 
THE  PUBLIC  DEBT. 

I.  Although  the  labors  of  the  Treasury  Department  have 
been  somewhat  complicated,  they  have  been  of  the  most 
useful  nature,  as  to  them  are  due  the  re-establishment  of 
the  countr3''s  credit  and  the  systematic  organization  now 
existing  in  its  revenues. 

On  the  15th  of  May,  1883,  the  Executive  requested 
authorization  from  Congress  to  enable  him  to  arrange  the 
national  debt,  whatever  may  have  been  its  sources.  'By 
the  law  of  June  14th  of  the  same  year  the  necessary 
authorization  was  granted,  which  had  for  its  main  object 
the  consolidation  of  the  entire  debt  into  bonds  of  a  new 
issue,  to  which  should  accrue  an  interest  of  three  per  cent 
per  annum,  as  well  as  the  re-installment  of  the  deferred 
credits  together  with  those  of  the  legal  origin  which  had 
suffered  a  discount  of  four  per  cent  of  their  value  for 
having  been  presented  at  the  oflSces  of  the  empire. 

With  respect  to  the  debt  contracted  in  London  (1824), 
the  preparations  for  its  settlement  were  commenced  by 
means  of  previous  arrangements  of  a  private  character  with 
the  committee  of  bondholders.  The  result  of  the  various 
conferences  held  on  the  subject  was  the  formation  of  a 
project  of  arrangement,  to  which  several  modifications  were 
proposed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  who  received 
it  for  examination  and  afterwards  returned  it  with  the 
necessary  jjower  to  have  the  respective  contract  drawn  up 
in  the  name  of  the  Government  of  the  Republic,  as  well  as 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  173 

a  project  of  settlement  and  conversion  of  the  debt  to  be 
sul>'mitted  to  the  committee  of  bondholders. 

The  respective  agreement  was  also  formed,  which  was 
then  sent  to  Congress  for  its  formal  action  and  approval, 
and  although  this  agreement  was  declared  open  to  general 
discussion,  still  it  was  not  approved  but  withdrawn  from 
discussion  in  November,  1884,  by  a  suspensive  proposition, 
due  to  public  manifestations  against  it.  In  the  following 
January,  the  commission  conferred  upon  Mr.  Noetzlin,  as 
attorney  of  the  Government,  for  the  arrangment  of  the  said 
debt,  was  declared  expired. 

In  those  days  the  obligations  weighing  upon  the  Federal 
revenue  were  very  numerous.  The  Custom  Houses  of 
Tampico  and  Matamoros  were  compromised  to  the  extent 
of  $94.87  per  cent  of  their  receipts,  those  of  Laredo, 
Mier,  Camargo  and  Veracruz  with  $87.87  per  cent,  and 
the  others  with  $87.37  per  cent.  In  the  Federal  District, 
the  Tax  Department  had  theii-  receipts  pledged  in  their 
entirety  in  favor  of  the  National  Bank,  the  Principal  Ad- 
ministration of  Eevenues  had  to  deliver  $2,000  per  day, 
and  the  National  Lottery  was  compromised  to  turn  over  its 
entire  net  profits  to  the  same  bank. 

The  mints,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  Oaxaca,  were 
subject  to  a  tax  of  $2,384,568.67,  inalienable,  with  a 
product  of  one  per  cent  on  the  coinage  collections,  which 
amount  corresponds  to  the  Public  Revenues  as  price  of 
rental. 

Thirteen  buildings  of  national  property  were  mortgaged 
in  favor  of  the  Mortgage  Bank  in  the  sum  of  $880,000,  in- 
alienable in  twenty  years  with  payments  of  $24,200  every 
three  months. 

To  these  obligations  must  be  added  a  deficit  of  more  than 
$23,000,000,  the  result  of  preceding  fiscal  years,  as  well  as 
a  decrease  of  some  $6,000,000  in  its  revenues  as  compared 
with  those  of  the  previous  year. 


174  THE    KICHES    OF    MEXICO 

The  first  step  taken  to  save  tliis  einbarrassinij  situation 
was  that  directed  towards  redeetuiug  the  public  reveuiie>. 
All  debts  with  the  National  Bank  were  liquidated,  with 
which  institution  it  was  agreed  that  the  balance  due  it  by 
the  Public  Treasury  should  be  paid  by  allowing  to  it  15 
percent  of  the  importation  duties, —  that  the  amount  due 
the  bank  should  not  cause  interest,  with  the  exception  of 
the  balance  in  its  favor  on  the  account  current,  which  de})t 
should  pay  (5  per  cent  interest  per  annum,  and  setting 
aside  for  the  bank  $100,000  per  month  on  account  of 
credits  that  were  collected  through  that  institution  by 
private  individuals.  It  was  arranged  that  the  National  Lot- 
tery should  deliver  to  the  bank  only  the  excess  of  its 
income,  thus  freeing  it  from  the  pressure  of  the  orders 
issued  in  1883  and  1884,  looking  to  the  payment  of  the 
$282,931  which  it  owed  to  the  said  bank. 

The  relief  thus  afforded  to  the  Public  Revenues,  and  the 
suspension  of  the  payment  of  the  $2,000  daily  which  the  Ad- 
ministration of  Revenues  had  to  deliver  to  the  National 
bank,  enabled  the  government  to  dispose  of  60  per  cent 
of  its  normal  income. 

The  next  step  taken  w'as  to  endeavor  to  increase  the  rev- 
enues and  establish  all  possible  economy,  to  which  end  a 
new  customs  tariff  was  issued, —  the  stamp  tax  amended  — 
reducing  to  one-half  the  contributions  which  had  been 
doubled  in  several  fractions.  On  January  29th,  1885,  a 
tax  on  merchandise  was  created,  called  the  "  Internal  Rev- 
enue Tax,"  to  substitute  the  previous  one  of  March  22nd, 
1884,  known  as  the  ♦'  Stamp  Tax  on  (^ui)ted  Merchandise," 
which  one  had  presented  great  difficulties  to  the  collector 
as  well  as  to  the  public.  Finally,  the  positions  of  super- 
numeraries and  auxiliaries  were  suppressed,  and  the  em- 
ployes intrusted  with  funds  who  could  not  guarantee  their 
responsibility  within  the  term  lixcd  upon  by  law  were 
dismissed. 

V 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  175 

It  was  nevertheless  impossible  to  meet  the  government's 
obligations  owing  to  the  poor  state  in  which  the  Public 
Treasury  found  itself.  There  was  still  a  deficit  of  $34,- 
903,353,  and  it  became  necessary  to  consider  the  expediency 
of  again  consolidating  the  debt.  The  laws  and  regulations 
of  June  22d,  in  regard  to  arranging  the  floating  and  consol- 
idated debt,  were  issued,  which  also  bore  upon  a  reduction 
of  salaries  among  the  functionaries  and  employes  of  the 
Union.  In  virtue  of  these  laws,  the  credits  against  the 
Treasury  were  converted  into  certificates  drawing  6  per 
cent  interest  per  annum,  which  operation,  together  with 
the  reduction  of  salaries  which  amounted  to  $2,000,000  per 
annum,  and  the  other  economies  introduced,  the  expenses 
were  at  once  reduced  to  $23,000,000. 

For  the  registry,  verification  and  conversion  of  credits 
and  claims,  an  office  was  established  in  Mexico  under  the 
title  of  "  Management  of  the  Public  Debt,"  which  office 
was  definitely  installed  on  the  13th  of  February,  1886,  as 
also  was  a  Financial  Agency  in  London,  empowered  to 
transact  the  requisite  operations  in  regard  to  the  certificates 
of  the  debt  there  contracted.  Said  agency  commenced 
business  on  the  5th  of  April,  of  the  same  year. 

LOANS. 

II.  Subsequently,  for  the  purpose  of  redeeming  the  float- 
ing debt,  to  reduce  the  exterior  one  and  procure  funds  to 
be  applied  to  the  improvement  of  public  finances  and  to  aid 
in  the  development  of  the  country's  resources,  the  Execu- 
tive negotiated  a  loan  in  Berlin  of  £10,500,000,  in  the 
exercise  of  the  authority  conferred  upon  him  by  the  law  of 
December  13th,  1887.  A  portion  of  this  loan  (£3,700,000) 
was  taken  up  and  placed  with  the  Banking  House  of 
Bleichroeder  at  70  per  cent,  which  was  the  rate  fixed  upon 
bv  the  said  authorization,  with  an  interest  of  6   per  cent 


17(3  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

per  annum, —  and  the  balance,  £6,800,000  face  value,  which 
was  to  be  applied  to  the  redemption  of  the  consolidated 
debt  certificates  placed  in  London,  amounting  to  £15,000,- 
000,  was  si'Jiiited  to  the  same  bankers,  to  whom  an  option  of 
accepting  it  at  86^  per  cent  was  allowed  until  the  1st  of 
July  of  the  following  year,  thus  making  an  average  of 
80.68  per  cent  as  the  basis  on  which  the  loan  was  nego- 
tiated. 

The  contracts  of  November  27th  and  December  3rd, 
1886,  May  21st,  1887,  and  April  6th,  1888,  were  entered 
into  with  the  National  Bank  for  the  placing  of  funds  in 
London  to  meet  the  dividends  accruing  on  the  debt,  —  for 
paying  in  Mexico  the  amount  of  the  coupons  of  the  certifi- 
cates whose  interests  were  payable  in  the  capital,  as  they 
fell  due,  —  for  the  placing  of  funds  in  New  York  to  meet 
the  American  debt,  —  and,  finally,  for  the  public  debt 
service  with  which  said  bank  is  encharged. 

In  June,  1887,  an  arrangement  was  consummated  with  the 
mortgage  bank,  in  pursuance  of  which  the  clause  relative 
to  the  payment  of  interest  was  annulled,  and  the  sundry 
loans  that  had  been  placed  Avith  the  bank  were  condensed 
into  one,  to  which  institution  was  conceded  an  arrangement 
under  which  the  cash  deposits  which,  in  virtue  of  the  con- 
tracts that  the  Department  of  Colonization,  Industry  and 
Commerce  might  enter  into,  were  to  serve  as  guarantee  to 
the  public  and  the  government,  should  be  changed  into 
mortf^awe  bonds. 

The  Railroad  Debt. 

III.  The  rapid  construction  of  railroads  throughout  the 
country  brought  with  them,  as  a  natural  consequence,  in- 
creased compromises  for  the  government,  the  payments 
of  which  could  not  bo  refused,  nor  even  postponed,  inas- 
much as  the  appropriations  authorized  for  their  payment 
absorbed  a  considerable  jjortiou  of  the  Federal  revenues. 


MANUEL  GONZALEZ  COSIO. 
Secretary  of  Public  Work". 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  177 

I 

The  Executive  having  been  entitled  by  the  law  of  the 
14th  of  May,  1890,  to  consolidate  and  convert  all  the 
subventions  due  to  the  railroad  enterprises,  the  govern- 
ment resolved  to  issue  a  loan,  which  was  taken  up  by  the 
house  of  Bleichroeder  of  Berlin.  This  loan,  amounting  to 
£6,000,000  and  on  the  basis  of  6  per  cent  interest  per 
annum  payable,  every  three  months,  was  granted  to  the 
said  house,  the  price  of  sale  having  been  fixed  at  88| 
per  cent  of  its  face  value  on  the  bonds  which  the  said 
house  issued  to  the  public  for  its  own  risk  and  account.  It 
was  also  allowed  a  commission  of  one-fourth  per  cent  on  the 
amount  of  payment  of  the  coupons  and  of  the  bonds  that 
were  amortized  by  lot,  and  1  per  cent  on  the  total  nominal 
value,  to  cover  all  emission  charges.  The  Government 
appropriated  and  assigned,  as  a  guarantee  for  interests  and 
amortizations  of  the  loan,  in  favor  of  the  bondholders,  12 
per  cent  of  the  total  amount  of  the  import  and  export 
duties  collected  at  the  Frontier  and  Maritime  Custom 
Houses  of  the  Republic. 

The  main  object  of  this  operation  was  to  liquidate  and 
pay  preferentially  to  the  companies  that  enjoyed  a  share 
of  the  customs  duties,  since  with  this  reduced,  an  increase 
in  the  receipts  would  be  obtained  which  would  facilitate 
the  payment  of  the  obligations,  thus  diminishino-  the 
deficiency.  And,  in  effect,  the  amount  due  the  rail- 
road companies  for  the  year  1890,  was  about  $40,- 
000,000.00;  of  these  companies  there  were  four 
which  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  the  apportionment, 
viz. :  the  Mexican  Central  which  received  8  per  cent ;  the 
Mexican  Railway,  6  per  cent;  the  Mexican  National,  6  per 
cent;  and  the  Interoceanic,  3  per  cent;  appropriations 
which  amounted  to  23  per  cent.  The  credit  against  the 
exchequers  of  the  two  first-mentioned  companies,  which, 
from  the  same  period,  accepted  the  conversion,  amounted, 
for  the  year  1890,  to  $23,082,212.30,  and  without  delay 

12 


178  THE    KICIIKS    OF    MEXICO 

there  was  applied  to  thorn,  deducting  the  discount,  and  as 
a  balance,  |17, 871,486, 31,  which  transaction  produced  a 
difference  in  favor  the  Federal  exchequer  of  $5,210,725.99, 
which  sum  represents  the  reduction  in  the  railroad  debt. 

An  increase  of  2  per  cent  was  also  made,  above  the 
customs  duties,  in  the  receipts  of  the  exchequer,  this 
portion  being  the  exemption,  between  th,e  14  which  the 
two  companies  enjoyed,  and  the  12  which  represented 
the  guarantee  of  the  loan.  The  same  loan  was  utilized  for 
the  purpose  of  balancing  the  deficiency  which  existed  in  the 
tiscal  year  1890-1891  and  the  account  of  the  National  Bank 
which  amounted  to,  approximately,  some  $9,000,000.00. 

It  maj'  be  remarked  that  the  suras  given  in  cash  and  in 
certificates  of  construction,  amortised  with  a  certain 
percentage  of  the  import  duties,  to  railroad  enterprises, 
make  a  total  of  $64,794,371.62,  which  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment has  paid  to  the  companies  in  question  up  to 
June  30th,  1892  ;  w^hich  payment  was  made  principally 
during  the  last  ten  years.  If,  to  the  former  sum,  be  added 
$19,743,000.00,  which  is  the  value  of  the  bonds  issued  for 
the  same  subventions,  some  at  par  with  5  per  cent  annual 
interest,  and  others  at  90  per  cent  of  their  nominal  value, 
with  6  per  cent  interest,  there  would  result  a  total  of 
$84,537,371.62  paid  by  the  exchequer  for  account  of 
acquired  subventions. 

Since  the  end  of  June,  1892,  in  which  period  Mr. 
Matias  Romero  was  in  charge  of  the  Treasur}'  Depart- 
ment, he  began  to  examine  and  formally  study  the  situa- 
tion which  at  present  confronts  the  Federal  Treasury,  and 
there  was  found  to  be  a  large  increase  in  the  pecuniary 
obligations  in  the  shape  of  periodical  payments,  which  the 
nation  labors  under;  an  increase  occasioned  by  the  fact 
that  the  compromises  made  by  the  government,  carry  with 
them  the  right  of  revenue  to  a  groat  extent,  and  must  be 
paid   ill    gold,   whereas    in  reality  silver  suffers  a  large  do- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  179 

preciatiou  and  the  consequent  charge  for  exchange.  This 
circumstance,  the  largest  and  most  costly  public  improve- 
ments which  the  nation  actually  demands,  the  failure  of 
the  crops  during  the  year  1891,  the  consequent  decrease  in 
domestic  commercial  transactions,  and  imports  (due  to  the 
extra  charge  which  articles  of  merchandise  are  burdened 
with  by  reason  of  the  necessity  of  paying  for  them  in  gold) 
demonstrated  the  probable  decrease  which  would  be  neces- 
sary to  effect  in  the  economical  estimate  of  expenditures 
for  the  years  1892-1893.  In  view  of  this,  an  equalization 
of  the  estimates  of  expenditures  was  effected  and  a  S3'stem 
of  strict  economy  and  reduction  of  expenses  to  the  lowest 
possible  point  was  immediately  adopted, —  and  this  without 
prejudice  to  the  compromises  of  the  government,  or  injury 
to  the  efficiency  of  the  service  of  the  administration. 

It  was  recognized  as  absolutely  necessary  to  discontinue 
the  system  of  granting  subventions  to  railroad  enterprises; 
to  abolish  completely  the  "  alcabalas,"  or  State  taxes,  which 
the  constitution  of  1857  attempted  to  suppress,  and  to  seek 
for  new  bases  of  taxation  which  would  serve  to  increase  the 
public  revenues.  With  this  end  in  view,  a  tax  was  created 
on  tobaccos  and  alcohols,  and  another,  applicable  to  the 
entire  country,  on  transversal  inheritances,  establishing  a 
mijnimum  quota  upon  ancestors  and  descendants,  and  bur- 
dening insurance  transactions,  which  heretofore  had  only  paid 
2  per  cent  upon  the  amount  of  the  premiums.  It  was  deter- 
mined to  reorganize  the  offices  of  the  Federal  treasurv  and 
to  introduce  into  the  custom-house  tariff  such  modifications 
of  certain  duties,  which  manifestly  would  be  of  public 
benefit,  taking  steps  in  the  meantime  for  the  radical  revis- 
ion of  the  present  ruling  tariff,  although  the  results  which 
might  be  produced  thereby  could  not  be  foreseen,  owing  to 
the  prohibitive  character.  In  the  same  manner,  certain 
changes  were  made  in  the  law  of  June  6,  1892,  which  estab- 
lished  a    tax   upon    mining    property,   and   suggested  the 


180  THE    KICHES    OF    MKXICO 

propriety  of  iloing  away  with  the  system  of  renting  the 
public  mints  to  private  individuals,  for  fees  to  the  Federal 
government  and  the  Department  of  Mines. 

NATIONAL  DEBT. 

IV.  The  state  of  the  public  debt  until  30th  June,  1892,  as 
below,  has  been  arranged  by  the  "  Financial  Review  "  of 
the  City  of  Mexico,  with  official  data  furnished  by  Treas- 
ury' Department. 

Capital.     Interest. 
Remainder  in  circulation  of  the  old  debt  of  Lon- 
don and  English  Exconvention G7o     £    110,250      £    3,307 

First  loan  Bleichroeder  (1888) 6%      10,500,000         030,000 

Railroad  loan  (1890) 6%       6,000,000         360,000 

Bonds  of  the  railroad  of  Tehuantepec 5%       2,700,000         135,000 

Loan  of  the  City  of  Mexico 5%       2,400,000         120,000 

Total £21,710,250  £1,248,307 

Reduced  into  Mexican  currency,  36  pennies  per 
dollar: 

Capital $144,735,000 

Interest  8,322,046 

And  convert  our  debt  in  gold  into  Mexican  currency  we 
can  already  calculate  the  total  amount  of  our  Public  Debt. 

Capital.     Interest. 

The  foreign  debt  in  gold  reduced  to  Mexican 

currency $144,735,000   $8,322,046 

Approximate  value  of  the  domestic  debt  on  the 

SOthof  June,  18'J2 3%      32,000,000         960,000 

Eight  million  dollars  convertible  at 10%  800,000  24,000 

Certillcates  of  alcauces  in  circulation  till  30th 

June,  1890 2,906,076     

Unpaid  balances  of  the  estimates,  payable  until 

30th  of  June,  1890 8,612,785     

Balances  paid  by  the  Treasury  until  30th  June, 
1882,  which  must  be  considered  in  the  con- 
solidated debt 2,605,999  78,179 

Bonds  of  the  harbor  works  of  Tonala 600,000  80,000 

Bonds  of  the  harbor  works  in  Veracruz,  approx- 
imately          2,000,000  250,000 

Bond.s  of  the  harbor  works  of  Tainpico,  having 

already  a  dci)lh  of    18  fct-t,  30th  June,  1892        3,000,000         180,000 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  181 

Capital.     Interest. 

Bonds  of  the  railroad  from  Matamoros  to  Guate- 
mala frontier 600,000  36,000 

Bonds  of  the  railroad  from  Torreon  to  Durango.  G00,000  36,000 

Mexican  National  Railroad  —  approximate  bal- 
ance from  1892  to  18D8 1,080,000      1,080,000 

Southern  Railroad,  finished  in  September,  1892 ; 
actual  value  of  tv/enty-one  annuities  of 
$880,800  with  premium,  calculated  by  the  an- 
nual interest 6%      10,384,000         880,800 

RAILROAD    BONDS. 

Monterrey  and  Gulf,  650  kilometers $5,200,000  $846,000 

Tonalit  to  Frontera  (bonds) 480,000  32,000 

Maravatio  to  Iguala  (bonds) 180,000  10,800 

San  Marcos  to  Nautla  (bonds) 420,000  25,200 

Chihuahua  to  La  Sierra  (bonds) 80,000  4,800 

Pachaca  to  Tampico  (bonds) 400,000  24,000 

Cash  debt,  without  interest,  to  different  railroads  1,786,000     

To    the    lessors  of  the  mints  until  30th   June, 

1890 2,169,000  66,000 

Cash  debt  to  International  and  Mortgage  Bank 

until  30th  June,  1890 l.O-t^.186  1U,860 

$221,583,046  $12,500,685 

With  data  furnished  by  Mr.  Matias  Romero,  Secretary 
of  Finance,  the  following  statement  concerning  the  Mexican 
credit  has  been  formed,  which  demonstrate  the  progress 
reached  by  the  Mexican  finances  in  seven  years,  from  1885 
to  1892: 

VALUE  OF  THE  PUBLIC  DEBT  IN  DIFFERENT  COUNTRIES,  1885. 

102 

Arsentma 

Brazil 100 

Chili 105 

90 

Columbia " 

24 

Costa  Rica ■ 

9 
Equador 

Guatemala ' 

Honduras 

Mexico '  ■ 1^« 

Paraguay  J 

Per<i 1^^ 

„  41 

Uruguay ^ 

Venezuela 


182  THE    UICHES    OF    MEXICO 


VALUE  OF  THE    PUBLIC    DEBT  OX  THE  SAME  COUXTRIES,   1892. 

Argentina 40  -JO 

Brazil 05  -(>>'> 

Chili c 91i-0L'^ 

Columbia 21i--2L'i 

Costa  Kica 63  -66 

Equador irA-lS-i 

Guatemala 43^-42* 

Honduras 7|-  8^ 

Mexico 85i-8G 

Paraguay 25  -29 

Peru 10 

Uruguay 34^-351 

Venezuela ....  44i-45^ 

Comparing  both  statement  can  be  noted  that  Mexico's 
credit  has  raised  from  the  ninth  place,  that  occupied  in 
1885,  to  the  second  place  ;  almost  on  a  par  with  Chili. 


ACTUAL    COXDITIOX    OF    THE    PUBLIC    TREASURY. 

V.  Since  the  final  assurance  of  peace  in  the  Republic  was 
given,  no  more  arduous  undertaking,  of  the  most  difficult 
and  delicate  character  in  its  accomplishment,  has  confronted 
the  Government  than  the  organization  of  the  Public  Treas- 
ury. After  fifty  years  of  lawlessness,  revolutions,  changes 
in  the  government,  foreign  interventions,  })ad  managenu-nt, 
in  short,  how  to  bring  order  out  of  the  chaotic  condition  of 
our  finances,  and  at  the  same  time  undertake  enormous 
expenses  for  the  preservation  of  peace,  the  development  of 
the  rich  resources  of  the  country,  protect  the  compromises 
made  in  foreign  countries  and  meet  the  requirements  of 
the  administration,  was  a  ])r()blcni  little  short  of  being 
unsolvable. 

"With  the  triumph  of  the  saving  revolution,  there  followed 
a  period  of  uncertainty,  of  distrust,  which  brought  com- 
mercial development  duiiiig  these  years  to  a  condition  of 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  183 

statu  quo,  with  great  injury  to  the  needs  of  the  Government, 
from  which  no  relief  could  be  had  until  confidence  became 
firmly  established  in  1880.  From  this  year  the  receipts  of 
the  Federal  Treasury,  which,  from  1874  to  1876,  had  been 
reduced  to  $14,000,000.00,  were  successively  increased 
during  the  succeeding  four  years,  to  twenty-one,  twenty- 
three,  twenty-eight  and  thirty  millions  of  dollars,  dimin- 
ishing later  by  some  two  millions,  owing  to  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  English  debt,  which  caused  such  an 
unwarranted  scandal  in  the  Republic.  Meanwhile,  and  in 
conformity  with  the  policy  which  has  been  followed  so  ener- 
getically by  the  new  governments  of  Mexico,  immense 
expenses  were  undertaken  to  sul)vention  railroad  lines,  the 
resultant  benefits  of  which  could  not  be  immediately  ob- 
tained. Immense  sums  were  expended  in  influencing 
foreign  immigration  to  the  Republic,  and  large  amounts 
were  devoted  to  public  improvements,  etc.,  all  of  which 
placed  the  Government  in  the  position  of  being  obliged  to 
make  good  its  credit  with  foreign  nations,  as  has  already 
been  stated. 

As  if  all  this  were  not  sufllcient  to  confuse  our  finances, 
the  failure  of  the  crops  of  1891  and  the  scarcity  of  products 
in  the  year  1892,  followed  in  succession,  which,  impover- 
ishing the  people,  owing  to  the  high  prices  demanded  for 
the  necessaries  of  life,  and  preventing  them  from  expend- 
ing their  small  savings  in  the  purchase  of  articles  of  for- 
eign production,  paralyzed  the  import  trade,  and  this, 
necessarily,  resulted  in  injury  to  the  custom  house  receipts. 
On  the  heels  of  this  disaster  there  followed  the  depreciation 
in  the  value  of  silver  and  the  consequent  rise  in  foreign 
exchange  ;  and,  if  it  is  remembered  that  silver  is  the  cur- 
rent money  of  the  country,  and  that  the  value  of  the  im- 
ports must  be  paid  in  gold,  in  addition  to  which  the 
unlooked  for  depreciation  followed  another  rise,  also  unex- 
pected, it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  import  business 


184  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

of  ^lexico  should  have  sutfered  a  terrible  unsettling  of  its 
mercantile  calculations,  and,  therefore,  placed  it  in  a  differ- 
ent position  as  an  auxilary  of  the  Government,  to  withstand 
new  imposts.  As  a  result  of  all  this,  the  deficit  in  the 
reciepts  of  the  Federal  Treasury,  which  had  been  making 
itself  felt  in  former  years,  became  further  intensified,  caus- 
ing a  decrease  in  the  receipts  of  the  exchequer,  from  $44,- 
142,857.00  for  the  fiscal  year  1890-91,  to  $39,019,414.00 
for  the  year  1891-92,  or  a  deficit  of  $5,813,442.00.* 

The  crisis  is  not  yet  passed,  and  the  opportunity  is 
favorable  for  remarking  that,  it  was  the  profound  wisdom 
of  the  Government,  and  the  vital  condition  of  the  country, 
which  has  enabled  the  latter  to  withstand  the  rude  shocks 
of  adversity  without  falling  into  misery,  and  the  former 
to  maintain  intact  the  credit  of  the  Nation  with  foreign 
countries,  keeping  ever  distant  from  bankruptcy.  The 
county  owes  much,  from  this  point  of  view,  to  the  highly 
reputed  financier,  Mr.  Matias  Romero,  who,  among  other 
happy  expedients,  which,  without  the  shadow  of  a  doubt, 
contri!)uted  greatly  to  the  salvation  of  the  public  credit, 
has  introduced  for  the  next  fiscal  year  of  1893-94,  strict 
economy  in  the  expenses  of  the  public  service,  without, 
however,  aflecting  the  efficiency  of  the  administration. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  the  new  taxes  and  above  men- 
tioned economies  will  increase  the  resources  of  the  Treasury 
in  near  $3,300,000  for  the  next  fiscal  year. 

Mexico's  revenues  and  expenditures. t 

VI.  The  different  sources  of  the  Federal  Revenue,  that 
form  the  income  budget  of  the  Republic,  are  as  stated: 
Custom  Houses,  Stamp  Taxes,  Direct   Taxes,  Federal  Dis- 


•  We  have  here  considered  the  receipts  of  the  estimate  and  the  extra- 
ordinary ones.     The  amount  of  the  estimate  was  !?37,474,879. 
t  Vide,  Book  VI,  chapt.  1st. 


JOSfi    IVES   LIMANTOUR. 

Secretary  of  Finance. 


AXD    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  -  1,^5 

trict  and  Territories  and  Sundries.     Here  is  the  percentage 
of  this  contribution  of  the  several  branches: 

1889-90. 

Custom  Duties ro  nr 

Stamp  Tax '.'.'.'.'.['..'[ oVna 

Direct  Taxes "'.-T 

Federal  District  and  Territories rin 

Sundries '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.[[l."   710 

100.00 

The  State  Revenues  compared  by  decades  show  an  in- 
crease of  133  per  cent,  in  twenty  years,  viz  : 

1880-81.'!!!.'!. ■.■.*;.■;  .■:;;;;:;:;;;:;; ^JoS^J^ 

ispo-qi  ^o,Ltz,tJ6 

1891  qo " 37,391.804 

^^^^"^^ 37,474,879 

The  growth  by  decades  of  the  cash  revenue  of  the 
Republic  from  its  different  sources,  in  the  period  that  we 
have  above  considered,  is  as  follows : 

1869-70  1879-80  1889-90 

Custom  Duties §8,510,532  $12,754,518  $23,356,327 

Stamp  Tax 1,897,894  3,847,990  7,937,927 

Direct  Taxes 485,452  592,688  1,447  149 

Federal  District  and  Territories.....   1,312,859  1,175,884  1  SOlVgs 

^""^^i^« 1,471,505  2,752,957  2'297,'279 

$13,678,242  $21,124,037  $36,630,475 

The  following  are  the  expenses  of  government  in  the 
fiscal  year  1891-92,  as  recently  published: 

BRANCHES  OP  THF  RnnppT  i.       Authorized  Actual 

a«a.«ojai!,a  ujj   lUlL  BUDGET.  Expenditures  for  the    Expenses  for  the 

1  r        ■    ^    J.  fiscal  year  1891-92      fiscal  year  1891-92 

1.     Legislature $1,023,040.35        $9J6,007!41 

2  Executive 4^,97,20  43,465.94 

3.  Judiciary.^ 476,784.50  466.312.53 

4.  Foreign  Affairs 577,436.75  508,620.86 

^-     •J^t^J^^'^ 2,524,051.93        2,425,511.23 

I;-     1,    f, 1,789,636.25        1,669,505.32 

7.  Col.  Industry  and  Commerce 798,608.85  640,178  18 

8.  Communications  and  Public  Works....     4,619.506.81       4,144^649.85 

in"     w^'"^''?;; 23,179,853.69     20,'268,'423.'63 

10.     WarandNavy 12,793,636.50      12,226,874.67 

Totals $47,832,592.83   $43,349,549.62 

Difference  between  tiie  autliorized  expendi-        '  

tures  and  tHe  expenses ^4,483,043.21 


186  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 


CHAPTER  VII. 

WAR  DEPARTMENT. 
WORK    OF    ORGANIZATION. 

I.  The  military  institutions  inherited  from  Spain  formed 
for  many  years  in  Mexico  the  basis  and  the  formation  and 
constitution  of  Mexico's  army.  This  was  the  case  in  spite 
of  their  manifest  unfitness  for  the  new  political  system  and 
though  they  were  entirely  unadapted  to  the  advances  made 
in  the  science  of  war. 

The  different  administrations  which  followed  each  other 
since  1821,  introduced  some  improvements,  slowly  indeed, 
but  still  they  were  improvements,  into  the  tactics 
and  armaments.  Nevertheless  in  1867,  on  the  fall  of  the 
Empire,  it  was  felt  that  the  army  had  many  defects  which 
must  be  made  good  before  it  should  be  constituted  in  a 
regular  and  complete  manner.  With  this  object  works  of 
reorganization  were  begun  which,  however,  did  not  pro- 
>luce  their  due  effects  on  account  of  the  attention  of  the 
government  being  withdrawn  to  other  politics.  WhiMi  the 
triumph  of  the  Tuxtepec  revohition  was  etlected  by  the 
occupation  of  the  capital  of  the  Republic  by  tlie  troops, 
who  prochiimed  the  new  plan  on  the  24th  of  November 
1876,  then  followed  immediately  the  establishment  of  a 
general  peace.  This  opened  up  a  new  field  of  action  for 
the  Secretaryship  of  war  and  projects  of  reform  in  tlio 
national  army  were  at  once  unrolled. 

The  organization  and  number  of  the  forces  were  from 
1860  to  1877  the  source  of  yearly  debates  in  the  Congress, 
and  the   Executive  could    not,   therefoie,    adopt  a    definite 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  187 

organization  which  would  be  exposed  to  changes  caused  by 
the  political  state  of  the  Republic. 

In  the  year  1877  the  first  measures  of  reform  in  the  war 
department  were  dictated.  These  had  for  their  object  the 
lessening  of  the  number  of  the  army,  the  unnecessary 
superiors  and  officers  being  relegated  to  guard  duty.  The 
effective  troops,  who  at  the  end  of  December,  in  1876, 
amounted  to  33,291  men,  were  on  the  30th  of  November, 
1877,  reduced  to  26,936.  They  were  then  organized  in 
flying  brigades  of  infantry,  cavalry  and  mixed,  in  divis- 
ions with  general  fixed  quarters  and  in  an  army  body 
intended  to  assist  the  brigades  when  necessary.  In  a 
memorial  dated  the  10th  of  December,  1878,  the  war 
secretaryship  asked  from  the  Congress  powers  to  improve 
the  scientific  and  administrative  organization  of  the  army. 
These  were  granted  by  decree  on  the  14th  of  the  same 
month. 

By  virtue  of  these  powers  the  Executive  created,  on  the 
24th  of  January  of  the  following  year  1879,  in  the  War  Sec- 
retaryship, the  department  of  the  Special  Body  of  Superior 
Rank.  This  is  composed  of  the  superiors  and  faculty 
ofiicers  and  their  decrees  were  issued  on  the  15th  of  the 
following  September. 

The  labors  of  this  department,  which,  among  other  duties, 
has  charge  of  the  general  organization  and  regulation  of 
the  army,  brought  about  among  other  reforms  the  issuing 
of  the  decrees  of  the  25th  of  January,  1879.  By  these 
decrees  the  persons  composing  the  Staff  are  determined. 
They  regulate  also  the  organization  of  the  Bodies  of 
Engineers  and  of  Artillery  and  arrange  that  of  the  Military 
Medical  Body.  This  latter  was  reformed  on  the  2d  of 
March  and  the  14th  of  May,  1880,  on  the  28th  of  June, 
1881,  and  on  the  3d  of  July,  1882,  and  had  new  regulations 
laid  down  for  it  on  the  22d  of  April,  1880.  These  new 
rules  were  substituted  for  the  old  ones  of  the  1st  of  April, 


188  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

1855.  By  virtue  of  the  above  decrees  important  reforms 
were  made  in  the  Military  College  also.  These  decrees, 
together  with  the  regulations  of  the  1st  of  March,  1879, 
were  crowned  by  the  new  reforms  of  the  23d  of  June, 
1881,  and  by  the  plan  of  studies  issued  on  the  22d  of 
February,  1883.  A  company  of  Mounted  Police  was  like- 
wise created  for  important  police  service  in  the  army. 

Decrees  were  sent  forth  on  the  2d  of  April  and  15th  of 
May,  1879,  and  on  the  19th  of  May,  1880,  for  the  regulat- 
ing of  the  Infantr}^  and  Cavalry  Departments  in  the  War 
Ministry  as  well  as  for  that  of  infantry  battalions  and  per- 
manent cavalry  regiments. 

In  the  Januaiy  of  1880,  instructions  were  given  for 
the  management  of  the  smaller  war  vessels.  The  number 
of  men  in  the  national  navy  was  increased  by  a  resolution 
passed  on  the  8th  of  March  of  the  same  year  and  on  the 
26th  of  March,  1881,  its  regulations  were  definitely  fixed. 

The  greater  part  of  these  resolutions,  besides  others 
which  have  been  omitted  for  the  sake  of  brevity  and  which 
had  for  their  object  the  provisional  organization  of  the 
army,  were  re-drawn  up  with  certain  modifications  and  now 
form  one  body  in  the  decree  of  the  28th  of  June,  1881. 

Ou  the  30tli  of  June,  of  the  samo  year,  the  Military  Ad- 
ministrative Body  was  established  and  formed  an  integral 
part  of  the  Federation  Treasury.  This  corporation  lasted 
till  the  30th  of  January,  of  the  year  1885,  when  it  was 
suppressed  and  in  itsi)lace  was  established  the  third  section 
of  the  General  Treasury.  This  latter  has  at  present  the 
charge  of  making  the  military  payments  and  its  members, 
like  the  paymasters  of  the  army,  are  of  a  purel}'  civil 
character. 

On  the  24th  of  November,  18.S1,  ;i  new  regulation  was 
issued  for  the  service  of  the  War  Secretaryship  reforming 
to  a  certain  extent  the  previous  one  of  the  30th  of  June, 
1880. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  189 

The  reform  then  in  the  organization  of  the  army  had 
beo"un.  The  rules  and  reguhitions  which  we  have  men- 
tioned  tended  to  nullify  the  defects  and  vices  which  had 
crept  into  the  army  during  the  long  period  of  revolutions 
through  which  the  Republic  had  passed.  They  were  also 
directed  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  more  uniform  the 
army  legislation  w^hich  consisted  of  a  chaos  of  resolutions 
which  the  governments  and  various  factions  issued,  put  in 
force  or  abolished  as  it  suited  their  particular  interests. 

GENERAL  ORDINANCE. 

II.  The  General  Ordinance  of  the  army  however  had  been 
already  reformed  in  1852,  but  displayed  in  some  of  its  re- 
gulations notorious  contradictions  to  the  rules  of  the  Con- 
stitution  of  1857.  It  became  absolutely  necessary  to 
reform  it  and  bring  it  into  conformity  with  the  institutions 
then  in  force  and  with  the  advances  made  in  the  art  of 
war. 

A  commission  was  indeed  appointed,  the  president  of 
which  was  General  Felipe  Berriozabal.  After  a  short  time 
on  the  10th  of  September,  1880,  it  presented  a  project 
which  was  approved  of  and  ordered  to  be  printed  on  the 
2od  of  the  same  month  in  order  that  it  might  be  laid  before 
Congress. 

The  President,  Gonzalez,  however,  wished  the  project  of 
Ordinance  to  be  subjected  to  a  careful  revision  and  he  eu- 
Siicred  in  the  work  himself,  having  for  his  secretaries 
General  Jose  Montesinos  and  Colonel  Francisco  Troncoso. 
The  former  was  superior  officer  of  the  ministry  of  war  and 
the  latter  chief  of  the  special  body  of  the  staff. 

Two  years  later  the  new  Ordinance,  corrected  and 
enlarged,  was  put  in  force  by  a  decree  of  the  6tb  of 
December,  1882,  which  made  its  rules  binding  from  the 
1st  of  January,  1883.     From  that  date  the  previous  gen- 


I'JO  Tin:  liiciiES  OF  :mi:xico 

oral  ordinance  of  l.s52,  and  all  other  military  regulations 
opposed  to  this  law  were  abrogated. 

On  the  same  date,  namely  the  6th  of  December,  1882, 
was  issued  the  law  regulating  the  ^Military  Supreme  Court 
of  Justice.  Along  with  this  court  and  by  the  same  law 
were  established  the  four  tribunals  of  instruction,  all  of 
which  were  to  commence  their  duties  on  the  1st  of  January, 
1883. 

The  President  being  empowered  to  issue  the  regulations 
for  the  National  Guard,  by  the  law  dated  the  2d  of  May, 
1883,  it  was  directed  that  the  department  of  the  staff 
should  compile  its  project,  and  this  being  done,  it  was 
forwarded  on  the  30th  of  May,  1886,  through  the  govern- 
ment secretaryship  to  the  Congress  to  obtain  its  approba- 
tion. 

RECRUITIXG. 

In  order  to  fill  up  vacancies  in  the  army  the  country  has 
htid  recourse  to  the  systems  of  enlistment,  lots,  and  pressing. 
Want  of  funds  and  of  a  good  policy  has  been  the  cause  of 
difficulties  in  carrying  out  practically  to  a  successful  issue 
the  two  first  systems.  The  last  has  only  been  resorted  to  at 
extraordinary  crisis  or  when  fighting  for  independence 
or  the  institutions  of  the  Republic. 

The  law  of  the  28th  of  May  1869  regulates  the  recruiting, 
giving  as  its  basis  lots,  and  it  grants  to  the  legislatures  of 
the  States  the  power  to  substitute  for  lots  the  enlistment  of 
volunteers.  These  regulations  have  not  been  fully  carried 
out,  for  some  States  do  not  supply  recruits,  others  only  a 
l)art  of  their  proj)er  contingent,  and  there  are  but  few  that 
send  in  their  full  total. 

As  it  has  been  impossible  to  enforce  in  Mexico  generally 
the  idea  of  the  citizens'  duty  to  serve  in  the  national  army 
for  a  fixed  time,  the  organization  has  therefore  in  certain 
cases  been  elTected  bv   forced   recruitinir  and    some   Stales 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  IDI 

have  been  compelled  to  make  up  their  contingent  of  men 
who  were  unworthy  of  the  military  service. 

RECRUITS. 

The  law  already  mentioned  of  1869,  and  its  different 
reorulations  are  still  in  force  and  in  conformity  with  its 
orders  the  States  furnish  the  contingent  necessary  to 
make  up  the  deficiencies  of  the  army.  The  recruiting 
officers  residing  in  the  various  capitals  of  the  States  are 
charged  with  the  duty  of  receiving  recruits,  enrolling  them 
and  instructing  them  until  they  are  incorporated  in  the 
batallion  or  regiment  to  which  they  are  assigned  by  the 
superiors  of  the  different  zones. 

Those  under  21  years  of  age,  who  are  not  married,  if 
they  offer  to  serve  voluntarily  in  the  army  are  bound  to 
show  the  permission  of  their  fathers  or  tutors,  or  if  they 
have  none  or  if  permission  is  refused  without  a  justifying 
reason,  then  that  of  the  first  political  authority  is  asked. 
Those  who  are  married  even  though  under  21  years  of  age 
require  no  permission  whatever.  The  conditions  necessary 
for  a  recruit  to  be  admitted  into  the  army  are:  to  be  above 
18  years  of  age  and  under  47;  to  be  a  Mexican  either  by 
birth  or  naturalization ;  not  to  sutfer  from  any  chronic  or 
contagious  disease;  to  be  strong;  not  to  have  any  such  phy- 
sical defect  as  would  make  him  appear  ridiculous  or  a 
monster;  not  to  have  any  hurt  that  would  hinder  the  full 
use  of  his  weapons  ;  not  to  be  deaf  nor  lacking  in  intelli- 
gence; to  speak  Spanish  and  to  be  at  least  1.60  metres  in 
height. 

The  corporation  superiors  are  bound  to  see  this  regula- 
tion carried  out  as  far  as  it  relates  to  the  ao:e  and  height 
of  the  recruit  and  it  is  laid  down  that  the  military  physicians 
must  not  take  into  account  the  under  or  over-age  of  such 
persons  or  their  want  of  height  as  causes  of  incapacity  but 


li)2  TUE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

must  limit  themselves  to    declaring    their  incapacity   by- 
reason  of  their  physical  condition. 

Both  for  the  admission  of  recruits  and  for  the  rejection 
of  the  unfit  which  take  place  every  quarter  of  a  year,  the 
military  physicians  adhere  to  the  list  of  diseases  which 
incapacitate  for  army  service  and  which  was  issued  by  the 
Secretaryship  of  War  on  the  3rd  of  August,  1888.  Indeed 
it  has  been  ordered  that  in  those  barracks  where  there  is 
no  infirmary  a  place  must  be  set  apart  furnished  with  the 
necessary  instruments  for  the  examination  of  recruits  and 
incapables,  and  that  this  examination  take  place  at  the  times 
already  mentioned.  The  major  or  failing  him  the  captain 
of  the  week  gives  orders  to  the  companies  to  form  in  their 
respective  squares  and  to  the  persons  judged  incapable  of 
service  to  step  forward.  The  physician  is  told  of  the 
reasons  of  incapacity  alleged  and  makes  a  due  examination 
if  necessary.  The  soldiers  whose  time  is  out  and  who 
wish  to  re-enlist  are  subject  to  a  fresh  examination  by  the 
doctor  of  the  battalion  or  regiment  to  which  they  belong 
in  order  to  see  if  they  still  retain  the  conditions  of  health 
necessary  for  recruits  entering  the  service.  The  govern- 
ment, in  its  proposal  to  form  an  army  of  soldiers  who 
would  be  volunteers  and  efficient  and  would  remain 
soldiers  with  capacity  of  acquiring  good  military  instruction 
has  laid  down  various  regulations.  Among  them  may  be 
mentioned  those  which  order  that  from  the  day  on  which 
a  recruit  begins  to  receive  his  pay,  six  cents  are  daily 
deducted  until  the  sum  often  dollars  is  made  up.  This 
amount  remains  as  a  deposit  in  the  General  Treasury  of 
the  Federation  or  sometimes  in  the  chief  exchequer  of  the 
different  States  until  the  above  mentioned  sum  is  completed. 
If  the  recruit  does  not  then  wish  to  continue  in  the  service, 
this  amount  is  used  to  pay  for  a  substitute,  but  if  there  is 
no  substitute  forthcoming,  then  the  ten  dollars  arc  handed 
over  to  him  on  completing  his  term  of  service,  so  that  this 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  193 

amount  together  with  the  sum  which  the  law  allows  as  a 
gratification  to  those  who  have  completed  their  term  of 
service,  may  enable  the  recruit  to  retire  on  better  con- 
ditions. 

This  regulation  was  issued  because  one  of  the  principal 
reasons  why  there  are  still  j^ressed  soldiers  in  the  army,  is 
because  the  recruits  furnished  by  the  States  are  neither  vol- 
unteers nor  have  they  the  necessary  means  to  pay  for  a 
substitute  who  would  free  them  from  the  service. 


ARMY    DISBURSEMENTS. 

As  soon  as  a  man  is  enrolled  as  a  soldier  he  receives  into 
his  own  hand  the  pay  which  the  law  ordains  for  toilet, 
barber  and  common  expenses.  He  is  furnished  beforehand 
with  a  pair  of  trousers  and  a  cloth  coat,  the  same  for  drill, 
two  shirts  and  two  pairs  of  drawers,  a  pair  of  shoes,  a 
neck-tie  and  a  sun-shade,  a  kepi,  two  handkerchiefs  and  a 
provision  bag,  an  overcoat  and  a  knapsack,  a  blanket,  a 
carry-all  with  plates  and  a  carrier,  a  gun-holder  and  a 
blanket  strap,  schacots  and  straps.  The  cavalry  soldier, 
trooper,  mounted  artillery  and  train  receive  a  cleaning 
brush,  a  corn-bag  and  a  blouse,  a  belt  and  sabre-sash,  sad- 
dle and  trappings,  a  cloak,  a  pair  of  spurs  with  straps,  a 
saddle-rug,  a  nose-bag,  an  apron,  a  brush  and  a  curry-comb. 

The  whole  of  the  troops  wear  white  gloves  on  parade  and 
each  soldier  has  for  cleanliness,  a  clothes-brush,  a  blacking- 
brush,  a  comb,  a  tin  box  for  blacking,  a  purse  containing 
thimble,  thread,  buttons  and  needles  and  another  tin  box 
for  soap. 

On  exceptional  occasions  when  the  mess  is  served  to  the 
various  bodies  of  the  army,  it  is  abundant,  of  good  quality, 
well  seasoned  and  to  pay  for  it  only  twelve  cents  a  bead  are 
required. 

13 


194  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 


TERM    OF    SERVICE. 

The  service  is  obligatory  for  five  years  for  corporals  and 
soldiers  and  those  who  remain  in  the  army  during  this 
j)eriod  of  time  without  deserting  or  being  sentenced  to  a 
longer  term  of  service,  are  proposed,  as  having  completed 
their  term,  to  have  given  to  them  their  full  liberty  and  to 
recen-e  a  jjralifit-ation  of  twenty  dollars. 

This  gratification  is  due  to  those  of  the  troops  whose 
annual  pay  does  not  exceed  $160.60  cents  and  have  served 
their  full  time,  or  to  those  who  have  become  sick  owing 
to  the  hard  labor  of  the  service  and  have  become  incapable 
of  further  duty. 

The  incapable  or  those  who  have  been  incapacitated  in 
war  or  in  any  campaign,  have  the  right  of  being  transferred 
to  the  Batallion  of  Invalids.  Full  freedom  to  retire  is 
granted  on  the  day  on  which  they  complete  their  term  of 
service  and  they  remain  excepted  from  service  forever  after- 
wards unless  in  cases  of  international  war  or  when  they  are 
actually  engaged  in  a  campaign  at  the  time  of  the  com- 
pletion of  their  service.  In  such  cases  they  remain  only 
during  such  time  as  is  absolutely  necessary  and  they  have 
granted  to  them  as  an  extra  gratification  one  dollar  per 
month. 

Those  troops  who  have  served  out  their  time  may,  if 
they  wish,  continue  voluntarily  in  the  service  and  if  they 
have  observed  good  conduct,  can  re-enlist  for  four  years 
more.  For  this  new  engagement  of  theirs  they  receive  a 
gratification  of  $20.  Those  also  who  have  retired  with  full 
freedom  from  the  ami}'  and  have  asked  to  be  re-adniitted 
into  the  service  receive  a  like  gratification,  but  this  is  on  con- 
dition that  not  more  than  six  months  have  elapsed  since  their 
retirement.  Re-eulistiuents  can  be  renewed  for  periods  of 
four  vears. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  195 


GENERALS. 

There  are  two  classes  of  generals  in  the  army,  namely, 
the  Division  Generals,  which  is  the  highest  rank  to  which 
a  military  man  can  aspire,  and  the  Brigade  Generals.  In 
accordance  with  the  Ordinance  the  number  of  the  former  is 
ten,  five  exercising  authority  and  five  in  barracks  and  it  is 
impossible  to  become  a  Brigade  General  if  there  is  not  a 
vacancy  to  be  filled ;  the  number  of  the  latter  is  thirty-two, 
one-half  with  command  and  the  other  half  in  barracks. 

The  appointment  of  Brigade  Generals  may  be  made  from 
among  the  effective  colonels  even  when  they  have  not 
graduated  as  generals.  The  vacancies  among  the  Division 
Generals  are  filled  up  from  among  the  effective  Brigade 
Generals,  whilst  the  places  of  these  latter  are  filled  by  grad- 
uated generals  and  effective  colonels.  The  commissioned 
generals  are  those  who  have  a  seat  in  the  supreme  military 
tribunals  of  the  Federation,  those  military  commanders 
who  have  this  actual  oflice,  the  generals  in  chief  of  Divis- 
ions and  of  Brigades  and  all  who  have  been  in  active 
service..  The  generals  who  have  not  been  commissioned 
are  considered  as  in  barracks.  They  enjoy  the  military 
honors  and  considerations  which  the  ordinance  appoints  to 
be  given  to  those  who  do  not  exercise  authority,  and  in' 
times  of  peace  they  choose  for  their  residence  the  place 
most  agreeable  to  them,  whilst  in  time  of  war  the  govern- 
ment assigns  them  their  barracks  so  that  they  may  be  ready 
for  service  should  it  be  necessary. 

The  general  of  a  Division  or  ot  a  Brigade  can  obtain  his 
retirement,  if  he  applies  for  it,  either  for  reasons  of  physical 
impossibility  or  for  any  other  cause  subject  to  the  rules  laid 
down  in  the  ordinance.  In  such  cases  they  are  excepted 
from  all  military  service  although  it  is  their  duty  to  offer  it 
to  the  government  in    cases  of  public  disturbance  of  the 


196  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

peace.  They  enjoy  also  the  military  honors  and  consider- 
ations appointed  for  those  in  barracks.  They  can  likewise 
obtain  their  absolute  retirement  and  again  return  to  the 
service  if  they  so  request  within  two  years  after  their  retire- 
ment has  been  granted  and  if  the  government  thinks  their 
services  of  advantage. 

RETIREMENT. 

Furlou2;h  may  be  granted  to  the  soldiers  of  the  army  in 
order  that  they  may  attend  to  their  private  affairs  or  on  ac- 
count of  sickness.  In  the  first  case  it  may  last  four  months, 
and  during  the  first  month  they  receive  full  pay  and  during 
the  second  half  pay.  In  the  second  case  it  may  last 
for  six  months  with  full  pay  all  the  time.  Unlimited 
furloucrh  is  granted  to  the  commanders  and  officers  of  the 
permanent  army  in  order  that  they  may  retire  from  the 
service  for  an  indefinite  time  either  at  their  own  request  or 
because  the  government  so  disposes  when  reducing  the 
numbers.  This  retirement  brings  with  it  no  pay  and 
absolute  retirement  is  given  to  such  persons  if  after  two 
months  they  are  not  summoned  back  by  the  government 
as  required.  The  document  giving  absolute  retirement 
implies  total  separation  from  the  army  and  is  handed  to 
more  than  the  generals  for  it  is  given  to  the  commanders, 
oflBcers  and  sergeants  who  apply  for  it ;  to  the  soldiers  who 
have  served  their  full  time;  to  those  who  for  faults  have 
been  sentenced  to  this  punishment  by  competent  judges; 
to  those  who  have  been  proposed  for  it  by  the  committees 
of  honor  of  battalions  or  regiments  of  the  army,  and  to 
commanders  and  officers  who  have  been  lowered  and  have 
afterwards  interposed  a  justification  with  the  result  that  the 
tribunal  ratified  the  lowering.  lie  who  obtains  it  at  his 
own  request  may  return  to  the  service  within  two  years, 
unless  the  retirement  has  been  granted  on  throwing  up  a 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


197 


commission  confided  to  him,  or  at  the  moment  of  commenc- 
ino"  a  campaign  in  which  his  force  should  take  part,  for  in 
such  cases  he  enters  the  army  as  a  common  soldier  and  if 
he  is  rehabilitated  by  Congress  he  loses  his  priority. 


PROMOTION. 


The  promotions  which  can  be  obtained  in  the  different 
branches  of  the  army  are  as  follows  :  1st.  From  soldier  to 
soldier  of  the  first  class.  2nd.  From  soldier  of  the  1st 
class  to  corporal,  3d.  From  corporal  to  2nd  sergeant. 
4th.  From  2nd  sergeant  to  1st  sergeant.  5th.  From  1st 
sert^eant  to  sublieutenant.  6th.  From  sublieutenant  to 
lieutenant.  7th.  From  lieutenant  to  2nd  captain.  8th. 
From  2nd  captain  to  1st  captain.  9th.  From  1st  captain, 
according  to  fitness,  to  adjutant  or  major.  10th.  From 
major  to  lieutenant-colonel.  11th.  From  lieutenant-col- 
onel to  colonel.  12th.  From  colonel  to  effective  General 
of  Brif^ade.  13th.  From  General  of  Brigade  to  General 
of  Division,  the  highest  grade  in  the  army. 

The  things  taken  into  consideration  when  granting  pro- 
motion are:  good  civil  and  military  conduct,  aptitude  and 
notable  progress  in  the  knowlege  of  the  branch  of  the  army 
to  which  the  person  to  be  promoted  belongs,  firmness  of 
character  and  fitness  to  command,  honor  in  all  its  mean- 
ings, civil  and  military,  love  for  the  profession  of  arms,  mil- 
itary spirit,  proper  age  and  without  defects,  sufficient  knowl- 
edge to  fulfill  the  duties  imposed  by  new  position  and  for 
the  higher  ranks  ;  besides  the  considerations  already  men- 
tioned there  must  be  a  technical  knowledge  of  all  the  arms 
of  the  forces. 


MORALITY. 


In  order  to  secure  morality  in  the  army,  committees  of 
honor  have  been  established  since  the  28th  of  December, 


108  TllK    RICHES    OF    MKXirr) 

1838.  These  deliberate  and  decide  upon  the  dismissal  of 
such  as,  owing  to  bad  conduct,  ought  not  to  belong  to  the 
service.  In  each  battalion  or  regiment  there  is  one  of 
these  committees  composed  of  the  colonel,  the  lieutenant- 
colonel,  one  major,  two  captains,  a  second  captain,  a  lieu- 
tenant and  a  sulilieutenant  or  ensign.  These  are  appointed 
by  a  majority  of  the  votes  of  the  officers  belonging  to  the 
battalion  or  regiment,  the  votes  being  taken  in  a  general 
meeting  which  takes  place  in  the  December  of  each  year. 
The  committee  of  honor  takes  cognizance  only  of  such 
faults  as,  without  being  crimes,  may,  however,  stain  the  fair 
name  of  the  battalion  or  regiment  or  the  honor  of  its 
officers. 


ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    WAR    DEPARTMENT  . 

III.  The  Secretaryship  of  War  is  a  condensation  of  all 
the  details  of  the  army.  It  has  for  its  service  four  sections, 
a  general  record  office  and  seven  departments. 

The  first  section  concentrates  the  business  sent  to  it  from 
the  chief  clerk's  office  to  which  it  is  annexed.  It  formu- 
lates the  expressions  and  forwards  everything  connected 
with  petitions  of  pardon,  telegraphic  and  telephonic  cor- 
respondence, notices  of  the  movements  of  the  army  forces, 
revolutionary  movements  and  those  of  troops,  of  places 
besieged,  escorts  safe-conducls  and  the  correspondence  with 
the  governors  of  the  different  States. 

The  second  section  takes  charge  of  the  issue  of  patents  to 
the  generals,  commanders  and  officers  of  the  army  and  navy, 
the  declaring  of  pensions,  furloughs  and  absolute  and  lim- 
ited retirements,  orders  to  the  military  commaiuK-rship 
for  the  issue  of  passports  and  regulations  referring  to 
freights  and  passages  in  the  railways,  diligences  and 
steamers. 

The  third  section  has  care  of  the  accounts,  the  issuing  of 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  lUU 

bills  granted  in  accordance   with    the  war  tax,  of  all  that 

CD 

relates  to  billeting,  barrack  buildings,  passages  and  freights 
and  an  ante-revision  of  accounts.  It  has  also  charge  of  the 
revision  of  the  telegraph  accounts  of  State  Governors  and 
of  the  particulars  of  the  general  provisions  of  forage.  In 
general  it  has  to  do  with  every  claim  of  payment  made 
upon  the  government,  and  which  does  not  relate  to  the 
organization  or  administration  of  the  army. 

The  library  section  undertakes  the  management  of  the 
library  of  the  secretaryship,  the  publication  of  laws, 
decrees,  regulations,  circulars  and  other  business  in  the 
same  line,  the  preserving  of  autographs  or  original  docu- 
ments which  bear  the  signature  of  the  President  of  the 
Republic,  excepting  only  the  patents  and  diplomas,  the  pur- 
chase of  stationery  for  the  secretaryship,  the  register  of 
review  arrangements,  the  issue  of  passports  and  the 
signed  reports  of  the  various  sections  and  departments. 

The  record  section  takes  under  its  charge  the  preservation 
and  arrangement  in  alphabetical  order  of  all  that  is  issued 
from  the  sections  and  departments  and  of  all  other  docu- 
ments which  the  chief  clerk  determines  should  enter  this 
section. 

In  conformity  with  the  decree  of  reforms  dated  the  29th 
of  February,  1892,  the  staff  of  these  five  sections  is  as 
follows:  2  infantry  colonels  who  are  principals  of  the  sec- 
tion; 4  cavalry  colonels,  also  principals  of  the  section;  1 
consulting  lawyer,  1  lieutenant-colonel  of  infantry,  3  of 
the  same  and  likewise  of  cavalry,  1  infantry  major,  3  cav- 
alry majors,  1  first  captain  of  infantry,  4  of  the  same  and 
also  of  cavalry ;  1  second  captain  of  infantry,  5  of  the 
same  and  likewise  of  cavalry,  7  infantry  lieutenants,  2  of 
the  same  and  also  of  cavalry,  2  sub-lieutenants,  of  infantry, 
9  ensigns,  10  first  sergeants,  5  office  boys,  and  1  porter. 

The  Department  of  the  Special  Body  of  the  Slaf,  is  the 
most  important  belonging  to  the  secretary's  office  and  in 


200  THE    MICHES    OF    MEXICO 

iime  of  loar  has  intrusted  to  it  the  following  matters:  The 
oi-f^anizatiou  of  the  army  in  general  and  its  disposal  for 
garrison,  zones,  camps  or  cantonments,  the  movements  of 
the  troops  and  military  expeditions,  correspondence  with 
diflcrent  authorities  as  regards  the  men,  war  materials, 
works,  instructions  and  service  of  the  army;  the  general 
details  of  the  army,  the  pass-word,  countersign,  etc.,  the 
army  administration,  estimates  and  expenses,  the  bil- 
leting of  troops,  the  States  and  their  condition  with  re- 
gard to  men  and  war  materials,  military  hospitals,  depots 
of  clothes,  equipment  and  food,  maintaining  and  employing 
the  means  of  transport,  the  maintenance  of  order  and  disci- 
pline among  the  army  bodies,  the  administration  of  justice 
in  the  same,  retirement,  furloughs  and  changes,  prisoners 
of  war,  general  police  and  security,  espionage,  mih'taiy 
acknowledgments,  letters  and  plans,  truce  ambassadors, 
agreements,  the  staffs,  reports  and  accounts  of  battles 
with  their  military  criticism,  judgments  sent  to  generals  in 
chief  or  commanders  of  troops  after  an  action  ;  punish- 
ments and  losses,  encampments  and  bivouacs,  fortified 
camps  and  the  general  supply  of  the  army. 

In  time  of  peace^  the  same  department  has  under  its 
management  the  following  affairs:  extraordinary^  missions, 
staffs,  knowledge  of  places  and  their  products ;  the  study 
of  strategical  points  for  use  in  time  of  war,  military 
acknowledgments  and  plans  of  campaign ;  the  formation  of 
the  military  tribunals  of  the  Republic  and  the  particulars 
of  each  State;  divisions  of  the  army  among  the  States; 
the  roads  of  the  Republic,  the  general  supply  of  the  army, 
the  formation  and  revision  of  military  regulations  ;  clothes 
depots,  equipment  and  food;  the  yearly  report  of  war  and 
its  general  statistics. 

The  staff  of  this  de|)artment  is  as  follows:  1  brigade 
general,  principal  of  the  Body  and  of  the  Department,  2 
infantry  majors,  2  cavalry  majors,  .5  first  cavalry  captains, 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  201 

1  second  infantry  captain,  3  second  cavalry  ones,  3  lieuten- 
ants of  infantry,  6  cavalry  lieutenants,  4  first  sergeants  of 
cavalry  and  4  ofiice  boys. 

The  Department  of  Engineers  undertakes  all  that  pertains 
to  the  ^lilitary  College,  the  Battalion  of  Engineers,  perma- 
nent fortification  works  and  the  repairs  of  military 
buildings. 

Its  staff  is  composed  of  1  brigade  general,  chief  of  the 
Department  and  of  the  Body,  1  lieutenant  colonel  of  the 
Faculty  staff  of  Engineers,  1  captain  of  the  same,  1  first 
cavalry  captain,  1  second  cavalry  captain,  1  infantry  lieu- 
tenant and  1  office  boy. 

The  Artillery  Department,  has  to  do  with  the  staff  of  the 
army  ;  the  general  park ;  battalions  in  service  and  the 
reserves  ;  train  squadrons,  companies  stationed  in  ports  and 
fortresses,  naval  storehouses,  the  national  manufacture  of 
arms,  national  foundrj^,  the  national  manufacture  of 
powder,  foreign  warehouses,  the  central  theory  and  practice 
school  for  instruction  in  the  different  weapons  and  the 
target  school. 

The  staff  of  the  department  is  made  up  of  1  brigade  gen- 
eral, 2  colonels  of  the  Faculty  Staff  of  artiller}^  subinspect- 
ors;  1  cavalry  colonel,  2  lieutenant  colonels  of  artillery,  1 
account  principal,  1  account  officer,  4  first  artillery  captains, 

2  first  cavalry  captains,  1  first  warehouseman,  4  second,  11 
first  park-keepers,  2  second,  3  clerks  and  1  office  boy. 

The  Faculty  Department  Committee  consists  of  1  colonel, 
1  lieutenant-colonel,  3  majors  and  4  captains,  all  of  artillerv. 

The  Infantry  and  Cavalry  Department  has  charge  of  all 
that  relates  to  the  infantry  both  as  regards  economy  and 
administration  ;  it  al.so  has  care  of  inspection,  reviews,  dis- 
cipline and  morality;  promotions  and  reductions,  the 
organization  of  battalions,  companies  and  isolated  piquets; 
furloughs  ;  justifying  causes  of  reviews,  the  promotions  and 
declaration    of   veterans;    filling  up    and    recruiting;    the 


202  Tin:  kiciies  of  mkxico 

purchase  of  baggage  animals,  their  disposition,  certificates 
of  service;  history  of  battalions;  diplomas;  afiiliations  ; 
honor  committees  and  the  irregular  infantry  forces  that 
are  in  the  service  of  the  Federation.  Besides  what  has 
been  already  mentioned  with  regard  to  the  cavalr}^  this 
Department  has  also  charge  of  forages,  the  appointing 
of  foragers,  the  buying  of  horses,  their  disposition  in  the 
regiments  and  auxiliary  forces;  administration  of  justice 
in  the  army;  military  colonies  with  their  organization  and 
administration,  withdrawals,  the  placing  of  commanders 
and  officers  where  they  may  be  available  and  commisariat 
inspection ;  and  tinally  all  that  has  reference  to  the  recruit- 
ing officers  in  the  States  of  the  Republic. 

This  department  is  composed  of:  1  brigade  general,  1 
infantry  colonel,  sub-inspector,  1  cavali-y  colonel,  also  sub- 
inspector,  1  infantry  colonel  the  same,  1  lieutenant-colonel 
of  infantry,  1  lieutenant-colonel  of  cavalry,  4  cavalry 
majors,  3  first  infantry  captains,  6  first  cavahy  captains,  4 
second  infantry  captains,  4  second  cavalry  ones,  1  sub- 
lieutenant, 1  ensign,  2  office  boys. 

The  Department  of  the  Military  Medical  Body^  has 
charge  of  all  that  comes  within  the  scope  of  medicine,  that 
is  of  the  military  Hospitals,  Statistics  and  Military'  Veteri- 
nary Medicine.  It  is  made  up  of  1  brigade  general  who  is 
a  medical  surgeon  and  chief  of  the  department,  1  lieu- 
tenant-colonel who  is  a  veterinary  surgeon,  1  lieutenant- 
colonel  a  medical  surgeon,  1  first  cavalry  captain,  3  sub- 
lieutenants and  1  office  boy. 

Tlie  Central  Navy  Department  has  under  its  inspection 
the  national  war  vessels,  together  with  the  home  and  foreign 
merchant  ships,  the  chief  naval  commands  and  the  harbor 
masterships  ;  the  numl)crs  in  the  navy;  the  arsenals  ;  skids  ; 
naval  schools,  navigation  and  cruising  patents. 

The  staff  is  formed  of  1  ship  captain,  principal  of  De- 
partment and  of  the  Body,  1  frigate  captain,  1  sub-inspector 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  203 

of  machines,  1  first  engineer  inspector,  3  sub-lieutenants, 
and  2  second  marine  corporals. 

GENERAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ARMY. 

IV.  The   army  of   the  Mexican  Republic    is    organized 
accordino;  to  the  following  classifications :  — 

I.  Special  Body  of  the  Staif . 

II.  Body  of  Engineers  and  Military  College. 

III.  Body  of  Artillery  and  Establishments  for  making 
war  materials. 

IV.  Infantry. 

V.  Cavalry. 

VI.  Military  Medical  Service. 

VII.  Battalion  of  Invalids. 

VIII.  Placement    of  commanders   and  officers  in  avail- 
able positions, 

IX.  Tribunals  and  Military  Police. 

THE    SPECIAL    BODY    OF  THE    STAFF 

Was  established  by  a  decree  dated  the  24th  of  January, 
.1879,  and  forms  an  entire  department  of  the  War  Secre- 
taryship, on  which  it  directly  depends.  This  body  has  two 
chief  purposes :  1st.  The  special  service  of  the  army  in  its 
various  branches  as  far  as  regards  organization  and  regula- 
tions.  2d.  The  formation  of  the  Chart  and  the  Military 
Statistics  of  the  Republic,  the  drawing  up  of  plans  and  the 
formation  of  routes.  In  order  to  enter  the  Special  Body 
of  the  Staff  it  is  necessary  to  have  gone  through  the  course 
of  studies  laid  down  in  the  programme  of  the  Military 
College,  including  all  the  subjects  specified  in  its  regulations 
and  this  too  with  success.  The  pupils  who  are  successful 
in  the  subjects  laid  down  enter  as  lieutenants.  Other 
officers  who   aspire   to   enter  the  Staif  must  pass  an  exami- 


204  THE    KICUES    OF    MEXICO 

nation  before  a  committee  of  professors  of  the  same  college, 
assisted  by  a  chief  of  the  Staff. 

According  to  the  clauses  in  the  regulations  of  the  Staff 
laid  down  on  the  15th  of  September,  1879,  promotions  are 
orenerallv  iriven  on  account  of  seniority  ;  instruction  and 
distinguished  services  being  special  motives  for  pre- 
ference. 

The  officers  who  enter  the  body  remain  six  months  in 
the  department  in  order  to  become  acquainted  with  the 
organization  and  mobilization  of  the  army  as  well  as  its 
various  services.  They  afterwards  pass  on  to  the  bodies 
of  the  army,  the  infantry  and  cavalry  branches  in  order 
to  go  through  their  various  exercises.  They  then  engage  in 
topographical  works  or  enter  the  Staffs  of  Divisions  and 
Brigades.  During  their  practice  they  have  to  learn  the 
service  of  armies  on  campaign.  Captains,  if  they  have 
been  in  the  cavalry,  are  obliged  to  serve  as  lieutenants  in 
the  infantry  and  vice-versa.  They  are  then  commissioned 
in  the  topographical  and  geographical  sections  or  have 
positions  on  the  Staffs  of  Divisions  and  Brigades.  Lieu- 
tenants are  considered  as  student-officers  of  the  Staff. 

In  the  Body  the  grades  and  services  in  other  branches 
arc  forbidden  and  all  must  be  in  the  etiective  service  of 
the  Staff. 

The  officers  of  the  army  who  enter  the  Staff  hold  prioritj' 
according  to  the  time  of  their  entrance  into  it  and  they 
must  be  either  lieutenants,  captains  or  majors.  They  are 
exempted  from  drill  in  the  infantry  or  cavalry,  accord- 
ing as  they  have  beloniied  to  one  or  other  branc-h  of  the 
service.  They  are  not,  however,  freed  from  service  in  the 
department,  topographical  and  geographical  sections  and 
the  Staffs  of  Divisions  and  Brigades,  nor  from  service  in 
the  other  branch  distinct  from  that  to  which  they  right- 
fully belong.  The  Staff  is  supplied  from  faculty  men  of 
great  attainments  and  jiives  to  the  country  an  ever-mcrcas- 


.AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  205 

in^  Dumber  of  scientific  oflScers.  It  is  composed  of  the 
following':  5  colonels,  10  lieutenant-colonels,  10  majors, 
22  first  captains,  22  second  captains,  48  lieutenants  and 
2  cavalry  majors  in  addition. 

BODY    OF    ENGINEERS    AND    MILITARY    COLLEGE. 

The  Body  of  Engineers  was  created  by  decree  on  the 
25th  of  January,  1879,  and  its  regulations  were  issued  on 
the  11th  of  July,  1883.  In  accordance  with  these  latter 
the  special  service  of  the  Body  embraces:  Permanent  and 
transitory  works  of  Fortification ;  attack  and  defense  of 
towns  and  fortified  positions  ;  repairing  roads  and  difiicult 
passes  on  the  marches;  the  building  of  permanent  bridges 
and  the  erection  of  works  of  art  on  the  highways  and  rail- 
ways; the  placing  in  positions  of  defense  strategical  points 
or  important  military  situations  in  territory  occupied  by 
the  enemy;  the  building,  guarding  and  repairing  of  the 
military  edifice  of  the  Republic  and  the  drawing  of  the 
military  plans  ;  as  also  works  connected  with  the  general 
Chart  of  the  Republic,  when  necessary,  in  union  with  the 
Officers  of  the  Special  Body  of  the  Staft'. 

To  enter  the  Body  it  is  essential  to  have  gone  through 
with  success  the  course  of  studies  in  the  subjects  laid  down 
by  the  regulations  of  the  Military  College  during  the  three 
periods  of  study.  The  pupils  and  officers  of  the  college 
who  have  fulfilled  these  conditions  enter  as  faculty  lieuten- 
ants. The  army  officers  who  have  not  gone  through  their 
studies  at  the  Military  College  and  aspire  to  enter  the  Body 
have  to  undergo  an  examination.  The  officers  of  the  Spe- 
cial Body  ot  the  Staff,  the  faculty  artillery-men,  and  those 
of  other  branches  of  the  army  who  have  gone  through  their 
course  at  the  college  have  not  to  be  examined  in  order  to 
enter  the  Body  of  Engineers. 

Battalion  of  Engineers. — In  conformity  with  a  decree  of 


2W  Tin:  niciiKS  of  mfxico 

the  30th  of  June,  1888,  this  battalion  I.-  organized  as  fol- 
lows : 

The  Staff:  1  colonel,  1  lieutenant  colonel,  1  major,  1  first 
adjutant,  1  subadjutant,  lieutenant,  1  first  cornet  sergeant, 
1  cornet  corporal  and  4  mule  drivers. 

Four  Companies  —  with  4  first  captains,  4  second  cap- 
tains, 24  lieutenants,  6  first  sergeants,  36  second  sergeants, 
73  corporals,  4  general  guide  cori)orals,  20  cornets,  and  8 
drummers,  576  sappers  and  8  mule  drivers.  The  battalion 
has  32  mules. 

Each  company  is  composed  of  174  men  who  are  divided 
into  three  parts  of  43  mining  sappers,  43  pontooniers  and 
88  workmen.  Four  more  men  are  employed  in  the  detail 
labors  of  the  company. 

All  the  troops  of  the  battalion  are  equally  instructed  in 
the  exercises  of  sapping,  mining  and  pontooning  ;  and  it  is 
also  laid  down  that  in  each  company  there  shall  be  50  men 
who  are  blacksmiths,  locksmiths,  coach-builders,  carpen- 
ters, belt-makers,  painters  or  gilders,  their  numbers  vary- 
ing according  to  the  necessities  of  the  service  ;  80  masons 
and  44  day  laborers. 

In  the  works  the  sergeants  act  as  overseers  or  foremen, 
the  corporals  as  gafiers  and  the  remaining  troops  as  work- 
men. 

The  general  exercises  of  manoeuvers,  encampments  and 
technichal  labors  are  gone  through  oucc  in  the  year.  One- 
half  of  tlic  l)altalion  performs  them  in  the  months  of 
November,  December  and  January  and  the  other  half  in 
the  months  of  February,  March  and  A))ril,  in  order  tlinL 
the  works  may  not  be  stoi)ped. 

7'he  Mililari/  CoUe(ie  *  depends  on  the  Secretaryship  of 
War  and  is  the  center  of  instruction  for  those  youths  who 
devote  themselves  to  the  military  [)rofession  \n  the  \ariou> 

•  In  the  chapter  "  Public  Instruction  "  lliis  estublishnu'nl  is  si>olion  of 
as  the  school  of  niilitaiv  instriictiou. 


AXD    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  207 

branches  of  the  army.  It  is  considered  the  first  institution 
of  its  kind  that  exists  in  the  America  of  the  Latin  races. 

As  it  forms  an  integral  part  of  the  army  it  is  organized 
as  follows :  The  /Staf  is  composed  of  a  general  director  or 
colonel  of  the  Army  (professor),  1  subdirector,  colonel 
or  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Faculty,  Staff  of  Engineers, 
Special  Body  of  the  Staff  or  Artillery  (professor),  1  prin- 
cipal of  details,  major  of  the  army,  1  adjutant,  lieutenant 
in  the  army,  1  Army  Medical  Surgeon  (professor),  1 
librarian,  lieutenant  of  the  army,  3  clerks  for  the  direction, 
subdirection  and  majority  respectively,  37  other  professors, 
10  masters,  6  adjutants,  3  preparatory  masters  for  Physics, 
Chemistry  and  Natural  History,  one  first  or  second  sergeant 
director  of  the  band  and  1  cornet  corporal. 

Two  Companies.  —  Each  of  them  is  composed  of  1  first 
captain  of  the  army,  1  second  captain  of  engineers,  Staff 
or  Artillery,  1  first  sergeant,  5  second  sergeants,  10  cor- 
porals, 10  first-class  pupils,  IKi  pupils  and  4  bondsmen. 
Each  company  is  provided  with  20  horses. — Servants  :  They 
are  made  up  of  1  steward,  1  infirmarian,  1  veterinary  rid- 
ing-master, 2  cooks,  3  errand  porters,  1  door  porter,  27 
waiters,  5  grooms  and  2  scullions. 

From  December,  1876,  till  the  30th  of  June,  1890,530 
pupils  completed  their  faculty  studies  in  this  college  and 
passed  into  the  service  of  the  Special  Staff  into  that  of  the 
Army  staff,  of  the  Engineer  Staff,  of  the  Faculty  Staff  of 
Artillery,  of  artillery  battalions,  of  the  navy,  and  of  in- 
fantry and  cavalry  bodies. 

BODY  OF  ARTILLERY. 

This  Body  also  depends  directly  on  the  War  Secretary- 
ship and  consists  of  the  following :  I.  A  Department  an- 
nexed to  the  said  Secretaryship ;  II.  Four  Artillery 
Battalions;   III.    A  train   Squadron;   IV.  Five  fixed  Com- 


208  THE    mCIIKS    OF    MEXICO 

paiiies  ;  V.  The  general  Park  ;  VI.  The  Store-houses  ;  VII. 
The  Arsenal ;  VIII.  The  Foundry;  IX.  The  Powder  Fac- 
tory ;  X.  The  Theory  and  Practice  School;  XI.  Five 
Foreign  Store-houses. 

Elsewhere  have  been  enumerated  the  duties,  etc.,  belong- 
ing to  the  Artillery  Department  as  well  as  the  persons  who 
form  its  staff.  It  should,  however,  be  added  that  to  insure 
jjrompt  dispatch  of  business  the  Department  is  divided  into 
two  sections.  The  first,  which  is  the  general  office  of  the 
Body,  takes  charge  of  all  personal  business  ;  and  the  second 
has  the  care  and  dispatch  of  the  scientific  business  of  the 
branch,  the  revision  of  supply  accounts,  armament  and 
ammunition  of  all  the  Army  bodies. 

Each  of  the  Four  Battalions  of  Artillery,  on  a  peace  foot-- 
ing,  in  order  to  be  able  to  serve  three  very  small  battle  bat- 
teries, and  one  mountain  one,  has  a  staff  and  four  companies. 
The  staff  consists  of  1  colonel,  1  lieutenant  colonel,  1  major, 
an  adjutant  first  captain,  1  subadjutant,  lieutenant,  2  second 
captains,  2  lieutenants,  4  sublieutenants,  1  first  trumpet 
sergeant,  2  first  veterinary  sergeants,  1  trumpet  corporal 
and  4  saddle  horses.  Of  the  four  companies,  3  are  battle 
companies  and  one  mountain,  and  their  total  amounts  to 
356  men,  40  saddle  horses  and  200  mules. 

The  Train  Squadron,  on  a  peace  footing,  is  composed  as 
follows:  A  stair,  1  major,  1  first  captain,  principal  of  the 
details,  1  adjutant  lieutenant  2  veterinary  first  sergeants,  1 
trumpet  corporal,  3  saddle  horses  and  2  companies  with  98 
men,  20  horses  and  200  mules. 

At  present  there  is  only  one  fixed  company  which  is 
quartered  at  Veracruz  and  consists  of  77  men,  2  horses  and 
16  mules.  The  military  depot  of  this  place  is  under  the 
charge  of  a  store-keeper.  The  decree  of  the  1st  of  Octo- 
ber, 1886,  which  organized  the  Artillery  Body  lays  down 
as  the  lowest  heiMit  for  artillorvinon  1  metre,  68  centimetres 
and  for  train  men  1  metre,  63  oentimotres. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  209 


ESTABLISHMENTS  TOR  THE  MAKING  OF  AVAR  MATERIALS. 

The  four  factory  establishments  which  exists  in  the 
Federal  District  are  counted  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Artil- 
lery Body.  They  are  The  Store-house  and  general  Park  ot 
Artillery' and  the  National  Arsenal,  which  are  at  Ciudadela. 
The  National  Foundry,  situated  in  Molino  del  Eey,  and 
the  National  Powder  Factory  in  the  town  of  Santa  Fe. 

Store-house.— This    establishment    has   to    receive   and 
repair  all  war  material,  as  well  as  to  construct  mountings 
carriages,  gear,  equipment  and  all  the  objects  for  which  it 
was  instituted.     It  has  a  steam  engine  of  60  horse-power 
which   works   three  machine-rooms;    one  for  turmngs  ot 
different  kinds  and  sizes  and  a  machine  for  brushing  and 
chiselling  iron;  one  for  wood-work  and  a  third  in  which 
there  are  3  brushing  machines,  alarge  radial  auger,  another 
small  american  one,  a  large  tile  for  heavy  pieces,  a  small 
double  one,   a  universal  polishing    machine,  another   tor 
en-raving   work,    a   pedal   wheel    for    small    pieces    and 
pressure  and  two  machines  for  making  screw  threads. 

There  are  also  in  the  Store-house  belt-makers,  carpenters 
and  locksmiths'  rooms  ;  a  forge  with  a  rotatory  ventihvtor 
moved  by  the  principal  motor,  a  steam  hammer  of  5,000 
pounds  force,  and  another  machine  for  metal  and  wood- 

Th'e  establishment  is  divided  into  a  Staff  comprising  12 
men  and  into  a  Co7npany  of  Workmen  with  89  workshops. 

The  General  Park  has  under  its  charge  the  receiving, 
keepino-  and  distributing  of  the  war  materials,  arms  and 
ammunition.     Its  Staff  and  section  of  workmen  are  made 

up  of  25  men.  •     j  ^u^ 

J^ational   ArsenaL-Ueve   are  made   and   repau^^d    he 

portable  arms    and   in   it    is    manufactured    the    metallic 

ammunition.     Although  at  various  times  the  establishment 


14 


210  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

attempted  the  complete  manufacture  of  arms,  it  was 
unable  to  succeed  owing  to  the  want  of  the  necessary 
machinery  and  apparatus  for  its  object.  Hence  it  is  that 
the  so-called  arsenal  in  Mexico  is  merely  a  work-shop  for 
repairing  and  transforming  fire-arms,  making  bayonets, 
sabres,  axes  and  for  the  construction  of  metallic  cart- 
ridges. 

In  the  November  of  1877  the  Congress  voted  400,000 
dollars  for  the  definite  establishment  of  a  national  arsenal, 
capable  of  turning  out  a  hundred  guns  per  day  ;  but  want 
of  funds  in  the  Treasury  only  permitted  the  erection  of  one 
capable  of  producing  from  fifty  to  sixty  a  day.  The 
machinery  of  the  repairing  department  was  indeed  reformed 
and  the  factory  was  supplied  with  special  machinery  and 
the  necessary  accessories  for  the  production  of  guns  and 
carbines.  There  is  machinery  for  inlaying,  catting  and 
heading  tubes,  for  priming  and  perforating  small  barrels 
and  for  oilino;;  two  automatic  loading  machines  for  boring 
gun-barrels  ;  rifling,  grooving  and  screw-making  machines  ; 
two  band-polishing  machines,  another  for  opening  cuttings, 
a  wheel,  a  machine  for  brushing  iron  and  another  for 
cutting  boxes. 

The  factory  contains  1(52  fixed  machines  which  are  put 
in  motion  by  a  powerful  engine  of  100  nominal  horse 
power  and  with  Galoway  tubular  boilers. 

There  are  steam  generators  in  order  that,  in  cases  of 
unforeseen  accidents  to  the  principal  boiler,  the  works  may 
not  be  interrupted.  The  metallic  cartridge  dej)artinont, 
which  is  in  the  same  building  as  the  factory,  is  furnished 
with  new  machines  adapted  to  the  workmanship  of  every 
calibre.  In  this  room  15  different  engines  work  in  produc- 
ing cartridges  of  11  '"/'"  0  (43)  and  among  them  is  one 
called  the  Inspector  which  examines  the  cartridges,  reject- 
ing those  that  are  not  ot  the  proper  size  as  well  as  those 
that  have  not  the  full  charge  of  powder.     The  room  has 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  211 

nlso  a  special  engine  in  case  the  principal  engine  should  get 
out  of  order  and  stop. 

The  machinery  of  the  Arsenal  can  only  make  guns  of 
43  (10.9)  calibre  and  it  has  been  estimated  that  in  the 
establishment  and  with  an  expenditure  of  180,000  dollars 
10,000  fire-arms  at  least  could  be  made  in  a  year  and  more 
than  400,000  cartridges.  The  arsenal  has  the  same  staff  as 
the  store-house. 

National  Foundry  for  Arms. — This  establishment  has 
received  special  attention  from  the  Government.  The 
work-shops  contain  machinery  suited  to  fulfill  all  the 
requirements  of  the  service.  In  these  rooms  are  made  all 
the  brass  artillery;  the  zinc  canister  shot,  leaden  balls  and 
all  the  pieces  of  metal  necessary  as  war  material,  copper 
and  brass  rails  are  smelted  and  made  into  sheets  for  the 
construction  of  metallic  cartridges.  Projectiles  of  various 
calibres  for  land  and  sea  artillery  are  molded  and  formed 
there. 

There  is  a  hydraulic  press  for  the  compression  of 
bronze;  and  the  pieces  of  iron,  necessary  for  the  other 
factories  and  for  the  artillery,  are  smelted  and  shaped. 
Besides  this  the  establishment  is  supplied  with  machines 
for  brushing  and  filing  iron,  for  making  screw-threads  and 
boring,  machines  for  striating  projectiles,  for  boring, 
jrroovins  and  turninor  cannons.  It  has  also  a  ventilator 
(compressed  air)  two  criks,  three  parallel  wheels  and  a 
hydraulic  wheel  which  communicates  movement  to  all 
the  workshops. 

The  foundry  is  managed  by  the  following:  A  staff,  with 
11  persons  and  a  company,  with  58  workmen. 

Powder  Factory. — In  this  establishment  the  army  powder 
is  manufactured  and  the  ammunition  of  the  artillery  is 
loaded  and  made  up.  It  has  eight  work-shops  well 
supplied  with  all  the  apparatus  suited  to  the  process  of 
manufacture  and  worked  by  a  hydraulic  wheel  of  cast  iron. 
It    is  furnished    too    with    a  room  for    granulating    and 


212  TUE    RICHES    OF    .MKXICO 

classifying  the  powder  and  another  for  glazing  and 
dissecting,  worked  by  hydraulic  wheels  of  seven  metres  in 
diameter. 

The  ventilator  sends  through  an  iron  tubing  a  current  of 
air  which  leaves  all  its  moisture  in  various  boxes  contaiuins: 
chloride  of  calcium  and  thus  dried  it  passes  on  to  the 
perforated  axles  of  the  casks  and  therefrom  draws  the 
moisture  from  the  powder  and  dries  it.  By  this  process 
the  dangers  of  explosions  are  greatly  lessened. 

The  staff  of  the  establishment  consists  of  forty-one 
persons. 

MILITARY    SCHOOLS. 

The  education  of  the  army  has  always  been  regarded 
by  the  government  of  Mexico  as  a  real  necessity,  and 
at  all  times  they  have  endeavored  to  foster  it  by  every 
possible  means.  On  the  27th  of  September,  1846,  the 
establishment  of  a  school  for  primary  education  in  the 
capital  of  the  Republic  was  decreed.  Its  purpose  was  to 
organize  the  army  and  to  educate  a  portion  of  the  men 
whom  the  States  sent  to  fill  up  vacancies.  This  school  for 
a  long  time  gave  excellent  results. 

Later  on  night  classes  were  established  to  instruct  the 
troops  in  reading,  writing  and  the  chief  rules  in  arithmetic. 
Military  libraries  were  also  set  up,  ordinary  gymnastic  and 
riding  schools,  practical  schools  for  the  infantry,  cavalry, 
artillery  and  engineers  and  offices  for  the  practice  of  tele- 
graphy by  the  army  officers. 

The  re-establishment  of  academies  of  instruction  for  the 
various  branches  of  the  army,  among  all  the  bodies  when 
they  are  in  garrison,  was  initiated  and  approved  of  in  liS77. 
The  teaching  is  carried  on  by  means  of  oral  lessons  and  by 
theses,  proposed  by  one  or  other  of  the  academies.  The 
conferences  take  i)lace  every  week  and  on  the  different 
days  of  each  week,  in  turns  lor  the  effective  Generals 
and  graduates,  the  commanders  and  officers  of  engineers, 


AND    ITS   INSTITUTIONS.  213 

the  commanders  and  officers  of  artillery,  of  infantry  and 
cavalry.  The  academies  were  extended  to  the  forces  of 
the  various  branches  of  the  army  which  are  outside 
of  the  Federal  District.  The  ordinance  of  1882  laid 
down  that  the  colonels  or  commanders  of  battaMons  or 
regiments  should  establish  military  academies  in  order  to 
perfect  the  instruction  of  all  classes  of  the  army.  It  enu- 
merates the  subjects  to  be  studied  during  the  three  annual 
terms  into  which  it  ordains  that  the  academy  courses 
should  be  divided.  In  addition  to  these  academies  the 
battalions  and  regiments  receive  the  instructions  in  con- 
formity with  their  respective  regulations,  that  is,  with 
regard  to  exercises  and  tactical  evolutions  as  apphed  on 
land,  the  management  of  their  weapons,  instruction  in  tar- 
get-shooting, instruction  about  security  in  the  iield,  school 
of  orientation,  exercises  proper  for  battle,  and  instructions 
in  camping  and  making  trenches  when  in  the  fields.  The 
Theory  and  Practice  School  was  created  in  order  that  those 
officers  who  had  not  completely  gone  through  their  studies 
at  the  military  college  might  have  a  course  in  this  school 
of  those  subjects  which  are  essential  in  order  to  belonof  to 
the  Faculty  Body  of  Artillery.  The  title  is  obtained  by 
passing  the  proper  general  examination.  The  sergeants  of 
the  body  also  receive  the  theory  and  practice  instructions 
necessary  to  fulfill  their  duties.  The  War  Secretaryship 
appoints  the  professors  from  among  the  commanders  and 
officers  who  are  considered  most  fitted  to  fill  the  post, 
whilst  the  artillery  establishments  supply  the  necessary 
elements  for  the  practical  teaching.  The  persons  who 
manage  the  school  are  one  lieutenant  colonel  of  the  Faculty 
Staff,  director;  one  major,  subdirector;  one  lieutenant, 
adjutant  5  one  first  sergeant,  clerk :  one  second  sergeant, 
door  porter  and  one  porter.  The  School  of  Military 
Bands  was  established  in  the  city  of  Mexico  in  the  year  1879. 
Its  object  is  to  bring  into  uniformity,  in  the  various  corps 


214  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

of  the  infantry  and  cavalry,  the  military  trials  and  move- 
ments ordained  to  be  gone  through.  The  artillery  battal- 
ions, regiments  and  brigades  send  two  bandsmen  to  the 
school  during  the  hours  of  instruction  and  as  soon  as  the 
cornets,  drummers  and  trumpeteers  are  sufficiently  taught, 
they  return  to  their  respective  bodies,  and  in  their  place 
two  others  are  sent,  and  so  on  in  succession.  The  bands- 
men receive  the  necessary  instruction  for  the  knowledge  of 
the  notes  of  music.  The  staff  of  the  school  is  made  up 
of  one  director,  lieutenant  colonel  of  cavalry  and  one  band- 
master, a  musician. 

INFANTRY. 

The  infantry  is  organized  in  battalions  numbered  from 
one  to  twenty-eight.  Each  one  of  these,  on  a  peace 
footing,  consists  of  a  Staff  and  four  companies.  They  all 
receive  the  same  instruction  and  wear  the  same  uniform. 

The  regulations  adopted  for  army  manceuvers  were  put  in 
force  by  virtue  of  a  circular  issued  on  the  3d  of  November, 
1887. 

The  twenty-eight  battalions  have  also  four  battalion 
squares  as  reinforcements  in  order  to  pass  from  the  peace 
footing  to  the  war  footing.  These  squares  can  double  the 
number  of  their  effective  soldiers  in  case  of  mobilization  and 
it  is  possible  also  in  a  short  time  to  double  the  number  of 
bfittalions  existing  in  time  of  peace. 

Each  battalion,  on  a  peace  footing,  has  the  following 
organization  given  it  by  decree  on  the  1st  of  July,  1889: 
1  colonel,  1  lieutenant-colonel,  1  major,  1  adjutant,  first 
captain,  1  sub-adjutant,  1  first  cornet  sergeant,  1  cornet 
corporal,  4  mule  drivers,  4  first  captains,  4  second  cap- 
tains, 12  lieutenants,  12  sub-lieutenants,  4  first  sergeants, 
32  second  sergeaflts,  72  corporals,  20  cornets,  an<l  4<)4 
soldiers.      There  are  also  32  mules.     The  infantry  scpiaros 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  215 

are  each  organized  as  follows:  1  colonel,  1  major,  1  ad- 
jutant, 1  first  cornet  sergeant,  1  cornet  corporal,  4  cap- 
tains, 4  lieutenants,  4  sub-lieutenants,  2  first  sergeants,  9 
second  sergeants,  19  corporals,  10  cornets  and  76  soldiers. 
There  are  also  a  company  stationed  atEnsenada  de  Todos 
Santos,  a  battalion  of  Sharpshooters  of  Cruces  and  the 
companies  of  Sierra  Gorda,  making  up  altogether  23  officers 
and  434  troops. 

CAVALRY. 

The  cavalry  is  organized  in  regiments  numbering  13  and 
each  of  them  comprising  a  Staff,  and  4  squadrons.  As 
reinforcements  it  has  regiment  squares,  but  which  are  at 
present  replaced  by  the  first  and  second  bodies  of  cavalry 
auxiliaries. 

Each  regiment  is  composed  of  1  colonel,  1  lieutenant 
colonel,  1  major,  1  first  adjutant,  1  subadjutant  ensign,  1  first 
trumpeter  sergeant,  1  first  sergeant,  beltmaker,  2  first  ser- 
geants, veterinary  surgeons,  1  trumpet  corporal,  4  first 
captains,  4  second  captains,  48  corporals,  12  trumpeteers, 
320  soldiers,  4  mule  drivers,  4  boys  and  421  horses.  Each 
Body  of  the  Auxiliaries  is  organized  thus:  1  colonel,  1 
lieutenant  colonel,  1  major,  1  first  adjutant,  1  carrier,  1  first 
sergeant,  chief  trumpeteer,  1  first  sergeant,  belt-maker,  1 
first  sergeant,  veterinary  surgeon,  1  trumpet  corporal,  2  first 
captains,  2  second  captains,  6  lieutenants,  6  ensigns,  2  first 
sergeants,  12  second  sergeants,  26  corporals,  6  trumpeteers, 
192  soldiers,  4  mule  drivers,  4  boys  and  250  horses. 

Besides  the  regiments  and  auxiliary  bodies  already  men- 
tioned there  are  the  First  Body  Countrymen  of  Tamaulipas, 
which  consists  of  1  colonel,  1  major,  2  first  corporals,  2 
second  corporals  and  200  guards  and  the  Escort  of  the 
Geographical  Exploring  Commission  consisting  of  8  officers 
and  120  men. 


21()  THE    IIICIIES    OF    MEXICO 


THE    MILITARY    MEDICAL    BODY. 

This  body  was  organized  by  decree  on  the  25th  of  Jan- 
uavy,  1879,  and  decrees  for  its  reform  were  issued  on  the 
2d  of  March,  1880,  and  on  the  28th  of  June,  1881,  and  the 
3d  of  July,  1882. 

The  health  service  for  the  Army  and  National  Navy  is  or- 
ganized b}'  regulations  published  on  the  22d  of  April,  1880. 
According  to  these  the  military  health  service,  which  has 
under  its  charge  the  Military  Medical  Body,  looks  after  the 
qualification  of  physical  fitness,  the  preservation  of  health, 
the  development  and  strength  of  the  men  in  the  arm}'; 
the  cure  of  their  diseases  and  advising  the  dismissal  of  those 
who  by  disease  are  of  no  use  for  the  service.  To  it  belongs 
also  the  dut}^  of  caring  for  the  healing,  improving  and  ex- 
amining of  the  horses  and  mules  as  well  as  the  obligation  of 
brinijino:  under  the  notice  of  the  Government  or  military 
authorities  all  that  regards  the  different  branches  of  the 
sanitary  service. 

For  the  care  of  wounded  or  sick  soldiers  there  are  three 
kinds  of  military  hospitals  established,  namely,  Jixed,  divis- 
ional and  temporary .  The  divisional  change  from  place  to 
place  along  with  the  general  quarters  of  the  divisions  of 
the  army.  The  temporary  hospitals  are  for  cases  of  epi- 
demic, or  any  exigency,  large  union  of  troops,  etc.  In 
places  where  no  military  hospitals  exist  there  are  infirma- 
ries in  the  barracks,  so  that  in  them  the  medical  officers  in 
the  respective  corjis  can  attend  to  those  who  have  only  sliglit 
infirmities.  The  IMiliiary  Medical  Body  is  composed  of 
doctors  of  the  School  of  Medicine  of  Mexico  who  have  both 
been  pupils  in  the  practical  IVIodical  Military  School  and 
who  on  receiving  their  titles  in  the  National  School  of  Med- 
icine  serve  in  the  different  bodies  of  the  army  as  majors, 
being  at  the  same  time  medical  surgeons.     Those  doctors, 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  217 

who  have  not  been  in  the  Medical  Military  School,  if  they 
enter  the  army  do  so  with  the  rank  of  captain. 

In  order  to  be  a  candidate  for  a  position  in  the  Body,  in 
its  Faculty  Staff,  it  is  necessary  to  have  received  in  the 
class  of  aspirants  the  medical  military  education  which  is 
given  in  the  Military  Hospital  of  Instruction.  Moreover, 
in  order  to  be  admitted  as  an  aspirant  it  is  essential  to  be 
physically  suited  to  follow  the  military  jirofession  —  to  be 
a  student  of  medicine  or  pharmacy  or  to  have  gone  through 
at  least  the  third  professional  year  in  the  course  for  medi- 
cine and  the  first  year  of  the  pharmacy  course;  to  have 
served  at  least  one  year  in  the  class  of  meritorious  pupils 
and  to  be  suited,  in  the  judgment  of  the  director  of  the 
establishment,  for  the  faculty  service  ;  to  have  displayed 
in  the  judgment  of  the  same  director,  morality  and  good 
conduct;  to  engage  to  serve  during  three  years  in  the  class 
of  army  medical  surgeons. 

For  the  Ambulance  service  those  soldiers  are  admitted  as 
oflBcers  who  can  show  the  best  certificates  of  service  whilst 
the  ordinary  ambulance  men  must  have  been  voluntarily 
enlisted  and  it  is  necessary  that  the  superiors  of  the  second 
infirmarians,  besides  having  the  necessary  physical  capacity 
must  also  be  able  to  read  and  write. 

The  ambulance  service  is  under  charge  of  Army  Health 
Body  and  has  for  its  special  object  the  assistance  and  curing 
of  sick  or  wounded  soldiers  during  campaign  operations 
and  taking  them  to  the  hospital.  These  duties  are  fulfilled 
by  the  sanitary  men  assigned  to  the  various  divisions  and 
by  the  litter-bearers  of  the  different  army  corps.  They 
are  supplied  with  sanitary  materials  and  the  beasts  of  burden 
assigned  by  law  for  their  purposes. 

The  ambulance  officers  have  the  direction  of  their  respect- 
ive sections  with  the  same  kind  of  duties  as  those  laid 
down  by  the  ordinance  for  the  rank  and  file  officers.  They 
give  the  necessary  military  instruction  to  the  ambulance 


218  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

men  before  they  receive  instructions  for  the  manasjement 
of  the  letters,  drugs,  barks,  stores  and  instructions  about 
the  management  of  their  animals  and  harness  to  the  train- 
men. It  is  the  duty  of  the  faculty  officers  to  stimulate  the 
ambulance  men  who  are  under  them  to  the  practice  of  sur- 
gery in  small  matters  in  order  that  they  may  be  more  capable 
of  fulfilling  their  duties  in  the  hospitals  and  in  the  field. 

Every  corps  has  its  doctor.  The  Military  Medical  Body 
taken  altogether  is  composed  of  two  generals,  1  chief  of 
the  Department,  a  doctor,  as  has  been  already  said,*  and 
the  other  director  of  the  Military  Hospital  of  Instruction, 
who  is  likewise  Director  of  the  Practical  School,  3  colonels, 
2  inspectors  and  the  other  Sub-director  of  the  Military 
Hospital  of  Instruction  ;  19  lieutenant  colonels  of  whom 
seveii  are  professors  in  the  Practical  School  and  at  the  same 
time  fixed  doctors  in  the  Military  Hospital  of  Instruction, 
ni7ie  arc  Directors  of  the  fixed  Hospitals  of  the  Republic, 
tivo  act  as  secretaries  for  the  chief  of  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment! and  the  last  is  Administrator  of  the  Hospital  ol' 
Instruction;  5(3  majors,  medical  surgeons  of  whom  fort  t/- six 
are  employed  in  the  sanitary  service  of  the  battalions  and 
regiments  and  ten  occupy  the  posts  of  Subdirectors  in  the 
fixed  Hospitals  ;  and  lastly  twelve  first  captains  also  em- 
ployed in  the  corps  of  the  army. 

The  Pharmaceutical  sei-vice  is  made  up  of  the  following: 
1  druggist  principal,  resident  in  the  Military  Hospital  of 
Instruction,  Mexico  ;  2  majors,  4  1st  captains,  and  9  2d 
captains  for  the  service  of  the  fixed  Hospitals. 

The  Veterinary  service  consists  of  majors,  first  captains 
and  second  captains  employed  for  the  artillery  regiments 
and  battalions. 

I'lio  Navy  Medical  service  has  one  major,  medical 
suro^eon,  for  each  of  the  vessels  in  the  National  Fleet. 

*  Page  203.  t  J<-1-  -^'i- 


AND   ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  219 


For  the  care  of  wounded  and  sick  soldiers  there  are  10 
permanent  military  hospitals  established,  whilst  there  is  a 
varying  number  of  temporary  ones.  Those  that  are  per- 
manent are  built  in  Mexico,  Veracruz,  Puebla,  Guadalajara, 
San  Luis  Potosi,  Tampico,  Tepic,  Mazatlan,  Matamoros, 

and  Monterrey. 

TheHospital  in  Mexico,  which  also  undertakes  the  military 
medical  education,  has  a  staff  composed  of  1  brigade  Gen- 
eral, who  is  director,  1  colonel,  subdirector,  7  lieutenant 
colonels,  professors,  and  1  major,  all  of  whom  are  medical 
surcreons,  12  lieutenants  of  the  Navy,  1  lieutenant  colonel, 
chemist  and  druggist,  1  administrator  and  1  commissary, 
the  lirst  holding  the  rank  of  lieutenant  colonel  and  the 
hitter   that  of  first  captain,   and   1  assistant  commissary 
All  the  Hospitals  in  the  Republic  have  alike  staff  composed 
of  a  Director  lieutenant-colonel,  a  Subdirector,  major,  and 
both  of  them  medical  surgeons;  a  chemist  and  druggist  and 
an  Administrator,  first  captains,  and  a  commissary,  second 
captain.    The  Hospitals  of  Tepic,  Mazatlan,  Monterrey,  and 
Matamoros  have  each  a  staff  composed  of  1  major  who  is  a 
medical  surgeon  and  the  Director,  1  second  captain,  chemist 
and  dru^^ist,  1  second  captain,  administrator,  and  1  Ueu, 
tenant,  Tommissary.     The   Hospital    of    Tampico    has   a 
lieutenant  colonel,  a  major  who  is  subdirector  and  both  are 
medical  surgeons;   a  second  captain  who  is  a  chemist  and 
drucraist ;  a  second    captain    who   is   administrator,  and  a 
com^missary  who  is  a  lieutenant.     The  Merida  Hospital  has 
assigned  to  it  a  Major  who  is  a  medical  surgeon,  and  a 
com°missary  administrator  who  is  a  lieutenant. 

The  Company  of  Infirmarians  consists  of  1  first  infantry 
captain,   2  infantry  lieutenants,   2  sublieutenants,  15  first 
sercreants,  watchers,  18  second  sergeants,  higher  infirmaries 
39  "corporals,   first  infirmarians  and  100   soldiers,  second 

infirmarians. 

TheAmhidance  Train  is  formed  of  1  infantry  lieutenant, 


220  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

1  infantry  sublieutenant,  5  second  sergeants,  overseers,  18 
mule-drivers  and  60  carriers. 

The  Medical  Military  Practice  School.  —  On  the  22d  of 
April,  1880,  this  School  was  established  in  the  Military 
Hospital  of  Mexico,  In  it  the  i:)upils  go  through  a  course 
of  internal  and  external  clinics,  and  acquire  a  knowledge 
of  surgical  instruments  and  apparatus  and  of  the  way  t®  use 
them,  and  of  the  means  for  transporting  the  wounded;  they 
also  study  urgent  surgery;  military  hygiene,  legal  medicine 
as  far  as  it  regards  the  Penal  Code  and  military  legislation  ; 
therapeutics  as  applied  to  the  making  up  of  receipts  in 
hospitals  and  campaign  drug  stores,  and  chemical  analysis 
and  especially  of  organic  products. 

Lately  a  new  kind  of  Ordinance  has  been  laid  down  in 
order  to  teach  those  who  belong  to  the  corporation  a  know- 
ledge of  the  duties  of  every  rank  in  the  service  and  the 
general  points  of  this  service. 

Conferences  held  about  each  of  these  subjects  form 
another  course  at  the  end  of  the  college  j^ear  and  all  of 
thera  together  constitute  the  subjects  taught  in  the  Medical 
Military  course  which  is  obligatory  for  every  Medical 
burgeon  in  the  Army. 

These  conferences  were  begun  on  the  15th  of  January, 
1880.  In  certain  subjects  the  lessons  are  oral  and  last  at 
least  half  an  hour.  They  are,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
courses,  either  daily  or  weekly,  or  they  may  be  held  2  or  3 
times  a  week. 

At  the  end  of  the  college  year  the  conferences  are  closed 
and  eight  days  afterwards  the  examinations  of  the  meri- 
torious and  aspiring  pupils  begin. 

The  aspirants  among  other  duties  have  to  accompany  the 
doctor  who  is  their  immediate  superior  on  his  visit  and  to 
inform  him  of  the  condition  of  the  sick  or  wounded  ;  to 
take  his  orders,  make  up  the  receipts  and  diet  billets,  etc. 

In  the   service  of  the  health  watch,  a   duty  which  they 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  221 

undertake  in  turns,  they  must  have  a  knowledge  of  all  the 
sick  and  wounded  in  order  to  be  able  to  prescribe  for  them 
in  cases  of  urgency  ;  they  have  also  to  take  the  first  pre- 
cautions, feel  the  pulses  and  notice  the  temperature,  etc.; 
they  have  besides  to  examine  the  corpses  before  these  are 
taken  to  the  amphitheater  in  order  to  be  sure  that  the 
death  is  real  and  they  are  obliged  to  give  a  verbal  account 
to  the  vigilance  doctor  of  what  has  occurred  durino^  their 
watch. 

The  meritorious  pupils  have  charge,  in  the  rooms,  of  the 
nippers  and  surgical  instruments  which  their  respective  doc- 
tor assigns  to  them,  and  receive  instructions  in  the  form 
which  he  prescribes  to  make  them  aspirants. 

The  number  of  pupils  who  are  passing  through  the  vari- 
ous classes  is  2b  ;  many  of  them  with  the  object  of  going 
through  all  their  studies  there  have  asked  to  be  given 
places  as  meritorious  pupils.  The  chief  instruction  given 
consists  of  the  technical  part  of  a  military  doctor's  duty. 
The  establishment  is  carried  on  with  perfect  regularity,  and 
the  pupils  have  shown  at  their  examinations  a  real  advance. 
Many  of  them  have  received  and  have  been  employed  in 
high  posts. 

TJie  Veterinary  Service. — Consists  of  4  majors,  veterinary 
surgeons,  4  first  captains  ditto,  4  second  captains  ditto,  and 
2  lieutenants  aspirants.  The  staff  is  divided  among  the 
different  places  where  the  regiments  or  battalions  are  sta- 
tioned in  order  that  the  horses  may  be  kept  in  the  best 
condition  for  service. 


THE  POLICE  BODY  OF  THE  ARMY. 

A  decree  of  the  25th  of  January,  1879,  created  a  com- 
pany of  horse  police  for  the  general  preservation  of  order 
in  the  army  when  in  the  field,  in  garrison,  in  cantonments, 
in  camp,  etc.     It  laid  down  as  indispensable  qualifications 


222  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

for  being  admitted  into  the  company  the  followinir:  to 
have  been  an  old  soldier  of  the  army,  to  have  uo  bad  marks 
for  civil  and  military  conduct,  to  know  how  to  read  and 
write,  to  be  of  a  fair  height  and  to  have  a  strong  constitu- 
tion. 

The  duration  of  service  when  a  perso-n  is  enlisted  in  this 
body  is  four  years,  but  when  this  term  is  completed  it  may  be 
prolonged  at  the  ex])ressed  wish  of  the  person.  The  new 
term  of  service  which  he  agrees  to  is  set  forth  in  his  resris- 
ter  and  is  obligatory. 

By  a  decree  of  the  12th  of  June,  1885,  the  squadron  of 
police  was  called  the  Police  Body  of  the  Army,  by  which 
name  it  is  at  present  known ;  it  was  also  placed  under  the 
Cavalry  Department  of  the  War  Minister  in  acordance 
with  a  decree  dated  the  3d  of  September  of  the  same  year, 
1885. 

In  conformity  with  the  regulations  laid  down  for  the 
body  and  which  were  dated  the  5th  of  May,  1879,  the  police 
in  times  of  peace  have  two  ordinary  services  of  security  to 
perform,  namely,  to  keep  watch,  over  the  fortified  places,  gar- 
risons and  cantonments  and  to  gutird  the  environs  of  these 
within  a  radius  not  exceeding  half  a  day's  march.  For  the 
tirst  duty  two  men  at  least  are  told  ofl'^vhilst  for  the  second 
a  body  of  five  is  appointed. 

The  police  service  in  the  army  embraces  provost  service 
properly  so-called,  convoy  and  baggage  service,  the  guard- 
ing of  prisoners  and  the  army  requisites. 

The  jirovost -general  exercises  jurisdiction  over  the  whole 
army  and  the  provosts  over  the  divisions  or  brigades  to 
which  they  are  attached.  This  jurisdiction  covers  all  that 
relates  to  crimes,  transgressions,  and  acts  of  opposition  to 
the  laws  committed  in  tcrritoiy  occupied  by  the  army,  the 
flanks  and  the  rear  guard,  in  a  word  as  far  as  the  action 
of  the  troops  extends. 

It  is  the  dut}'  of  the  provosts  to  protect  the  inhabitants 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  223 

of  the  country  against  pillage  or  any  other  violence  and  to 
fulfill  in  the  same  way  as  the  military  police  the  duties 
of  judicial  guardianship  as  soon  as  they  become  aware  of  a 
crime  or  transgression. 

The  police  have  among  their  other  functions  a  continual 
and  repressive  watchfuUness  over  crimes  in  the  military 
orders,  over  those  which  are  committed  by  persons  who 
are  subject  to  the  laws  of  war,  and  they  exercise  a  like 
surveillance  over  the  men  who  accompany  or  serve  the 
army  in  the  territory  which  is  declared  to  be  in  a  state  of 
war  or  siege,  and  in  the  field,  or  when  individual  guarantees 
have  been  constitutionally  declared  suspended. 

Beyond  these  cases  the  police,  as  far  as  the  inhabitants 
of  the  country  are  concerned,  can  onl}^  bring  the  crimes  to 
light  and  apprehend  the  delinquents  in  default  of  the  ordi- 
nary police,  and  they  are  bound  to  hand  them  over  to  the 
authority  competent  to  deal  with  them. 

The  police  are  empowered  to  render  extraordinary  serv- 
ices for  the  suppression  of  smugglers,  when  such  services 
are  required  by  the  customs  administrators  in  places  where 
they  are  stationed,  and  for  the  protection  of  the  branches 
of  the  public  treasury  when  they  are  threatened  with  rob- 
bery and  for  the  protection  of  railways  or  public  buildings. 

The  army  police  body  is  composed  of  the  following:  1 
colonel,  1  lieutenant-colonel,  1  major,  1  adjutant,  1st  cap- 
tain, 1  sub-adjutant,  ensign,  1  first  sergeant,  1  first  ser- 
geant, harness-maker,  1  trumpeteer  corporal,  2  boys,  4 
mule-drivers,  2  first  captains,  2  second  captains,  6  lieuten- 
ants, 6  ensigns,  2  first  sergeants,  12  second  sergeants,  24 
corporals,  6  trumpeteers,  and  226  gendarmes. 

NATIONAL    BATTALION    OF    INVALIDS. 

This  force  consists  of  those  soldiers  who  have  retired 
from  the  army  but  who  still  exercise  the  right  which  the 


224  THE  RICHES  of  Mexico 

law  grants  them  of  entering  this  battalion  because  they 
have  been  incapacitated  either  in  battle  or  in  a  campaio-n, 
but  without  losing  their  right  to  receive  their  pay  for  their 
time  of  service. 

Their  duties  are  passive  ones  and  they  are  employed  for 
giving  orders  in  certain  public  offices  whilst  in  others  they 
act  as  guards.  The  Battalion  of  Invalids  is  formed  of  2 
chiefs,  11  officers  and  IGl  men.  The  organization  of  this 
body  was  decreed  on  the  25th  of  January,  1879. 

THE   RESERVE   OF   COMMANDERS   AND   OFFICERS. 

This  is  a  body  composed  of  those  commanders  and  offi- 
cers who  are  in  excess  of  the  number  required  for  the  various 
commands  and  regulations  made  in  order  to  organize  the 
army.  As  these  men  have  lent  their  services  to  the  Nation, 
the  Government  in  justice  towards  them  attends  to  their 
support  with  the  least  possible  detriment  to  the  exchequer. 
They  are  employed  in  certain  positions  in  fortified  places 
and  form  a  reserve  to  complete  the  squares  in  times  of  war. 

On  the  28th  of  January,  1885,  it  was  resolved  that  the 
commanders  and  officers  of  the  reserve  should  attend  the 
classes  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  School  of  the  army, 
where  they  might  study  the  regulations  for  the  employ- 
ment of  troops  in  the  field,  and  gain  some  knowledge  of 
transitory  fortifications,  constitutional  law,  the  law  of 
nations,  and  other  subjects. 

On  the  30th  of  June,  1890,  the  body  consisted  of  1 
Brigade  General,  G95  commanders  and  464  officers. 

MILITARY    TRIBUNALS    AND   POLICE. 

Before  the  General  Ordinance  of  the  Army  was  put  in 
force  on  the  10th  of  January,  1883,  the  Administration  of 
justice  and  military  laws  were  rcgulatod  in  accordance  with 


GENERAL  OF  DIVISION  PKDRO  HINOJOSA. 
Secretary  of  War. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  225 

the  law  of  the  20th  of  January,  1869,  which  establishes 
military  juries.  The  want  of  a  penal  Code  on  this  matter 
was  greatly  felt,  for  the  soldiers  were  subjected  to  the 
penalties  laid  down  in  the  reformed  Ordinance  in  1852,  and 
many  of  these  punishments  were  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
principles  of  the  Charter  of  1857.  Moreover  the  judges  in 
the  military  order  were  irresponsible  and  a  tribunal  was 
needed  to  revise  their  proceedings  and  thus  give  guarantees 
of  receiving  justice  to  those  who  should  be  tried. 

When  the  new  Code  of  military  justice  was  published 
and  its  new  principle  adopted  the  organization  of  the 
tribunals  and  the  procedure  of  trials  were  entirely  changed. 

The  administration  of  military  justice  still  remained 
under  the  charge  of  the  provosts  as  well  as  the  ordinary 
Councils  of  War  and  also  the  extraordinary  and  in  addition 
to  these  the  councils  of  the  Superior  Court  of  military 
justice. 

The  Juries  of  Instruction,  the  Councils  of  War  and  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Justice  began  their  duties  on  the  1st  of 
January,  1883,  in  conformity  with  the  law  of  the  6th  of 
December,  1882.  The  magistrates  and  other  employes 
of  the  court  were  appointed  on  the  30th  of  December  of 
the  preceding  year. 

From  the  very  beginning  certain  inconveniences  in  the 
application  of  the  Tiew  Code  presented  themselves  both  by 
reason  of  the  new  procedure  employed  and  by  reason  of  the 
fresh  interpretations  which  were  given  to  certain  precepts 
of  the  law. 

The  Secretaryship  of  War  promulgated  various  regula- 
tions in  order  to  smooth  over  these  difficulties  and  to  facili- 
tate the  fair  and  prompt  administration  of  justice.  The 
inconveniences,  however,  became  so  frequent  and  grave  that 
it  was  found  necessary  to  modify  the  law  and  bring  it  into 
conformity  with  actual  experience.  Accordingly  a  com- 
mission was   appointed  to  revise  the  Code  which  was  in 

15 


226  Tin-:  kiches  of  Mexico 

force  and  to  present  the  President  of  the  Republic  the 
plan  of  reforms  which  in  its  judgment  ought  to  be  sub- 
stituted. The  commission  in  its  innovations  has  suc- 
ceeded in  giving  to  the  accused  all  the  guarantees  which 
modern  rights  demand  and  above  all  the  fullest  possible 
liberty  as  regards  himself  and  his  defenders. 

MILITARY       TRIBUNALS— THEIR       ORGANIZATION      AND       COM- 
PETENCY. 

IV.  The  administration  of  Militaiy  Justice,  in  con- 
formity with  the  latest  changes  made  in  the  Code  covering 
this  subject  of  September  IGth,  1892,  is  under  the  charge 
of:  1st,  the  Military  Heads  authorized  to  issue  orders  of 
procedure;  2nd,  the  Ordinary  Military  Courts;  3d,  the 
Extraordinary  Militaiy  Courts  or  Councils;  4th,  the 
Supreme  Military  Court. 

These  tribunals  only  pass  upon  criminal  actions  arising 
from  crimes  coming  under  their  judrisdiction  ;  the  civil 
action  resulting  from  these  crimes,  is  governed  by  the 
provisions  of  ordinary  legislation,  drawn  before  the  ordinary 
tribunals,  and  they  have  no  authority  to  pass  sentence  until, 
in  the  order  of  militaiy  procedure,  executive  sentence  has 
been  pronounced. 

The  militaiy  heads  above  referred  to  are  :  the  General- 
in-Chief  of  a  body  of  troops,  the  Generals  of  divisions, 
brigades,  or  columns  which  operate  individually ;  the 
Chiefs  of  Zone;  the  Chief  Commanders  of  the  States;  the 
Military  Commanders  ;  the  chiefs  in  command  of  troops 
who  are  somewhat  removed  from  their  superior  officers. 

With  the  exception  of  these  latter,  the  military  chiefs 
convoke  and  assemble  the  ordinary  and  extraordinary 
councils  of  war,  direct  and  pass  upon,  with  the  aid  of  a 
lawyer,  the  processes,  provided  the  crimes  to  be  passed 
upon  are  such  that  the  average  penalty   assigned    by  law 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  227 

does  not  exceed  eleven  months  of  arrest,  or  fines  up  to  the 
second  chiss;  they  pass  upon  actions  taken  against  sergeants 
and  captains  for  crimes  whose  punishment  is  simple  dismis- 
sal from  the  service,  and  also,  in  the  same  manner,  try 
causes,  inflicting  the  punishment  which  the  law  requires. 

Ordinainf  Councils  of  War. —  There  is  a  permanently  es- 
tablished tribunal  of  these  in  the  general  headquarters  in 
each  military  zone  ordivisionand  in  some  military  provinces, 
and  two  in  the  Military  Commandant's  Department  of  the 
Federal  District.  They  are  composed  of  seven  proprietory 
voters  and  a  number  of  supplementary  voters  who  supply 
the  accidental  absences  of  the  former.  One  and  the  others 
are  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  War  from  among  the 
head  chiefs  and  captains  of  the  army  ;  the  supplementary 
appointments  may  be  made  in  certain  cases  by  the  respect- 
ive military  chief. 

The  rank  of  the  persons  composing  these  councils  must 
be  equal  to  or  greater  than  the  rank  of  the  persons  upon 
whom  process  has  been  served,  and  if  the  latter  should  be 
a  General  of  Division,  and  there  are  not  the  requisite  num- 
ber of  Generals  of  this  grade  or  rank,  the  Council  of  War 
will  be  made  up  of  from  among  the  Generals  of  Brigade. 
The  citizens  who  have  been  served  upon  shall  be  regarded 
as  members  of  the  troops,  and  if  there  should  be  any  mili- 
tary person  accused  conjointly,  the  graduation  of  this  one 
will  determine  the  manner  in  which  the  Council  shall  be 
formed. 

The  voter  of  the  highest  class  shall  preside  as  President 
of  the  Council,  and  where  there  are  more  than  one  of  this 
class,  the  oldest  shall  preside,  while  the  voter  of  lesser  rank 
shall  act  as  Secretary. 

The  ordinary  Councils  of  War  pass  upon  military  crimes 
or  misdemeanors  which  the  law  does  not  place  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  military  heads  of  which  mention  has  been 
made,  or  to  the  Extraordinary  Councils  of  War;  and,  in 


228  THE    KICHES   OF   MLXICO 

time  of  war,  they  shall  consider  crimes  which,  by  virtue  of 
the  legal  ordinances  of  the  State  in  which  they  are  located, 
come  under  their  jurisdiction. 

^xlraordiiiaiy  Councils  of  War.  —  These  are  composed 
of  seven  military  officials  of  the  rank  required  by  that  of 
the  accused,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Ordinary  Councils  of  War, 
but  the  officers  of  the  company  to  which  the  accused  person 
belongs  shall  not  be  permitted  to  form  part  of  these  Councils. 

These  Councils, shall  have  the  power  to  pass  upon  the  fol- 
lowincr  crimes ;  desertion  in  face  of  the  enemy  ;  sedition 
in  face  of  the  enemy,  at  the  moment  of  combat  or  at  two 
days'  march  distant,  whether  facing  the  enemy,  or  in  re- 
treat ;  treason,  unless  this  consists  of  placing  prisoners  of 
war  at  liberty,  or  in  protecting  their  escape  in  face  of  the 
enemy  during  a  battle  or  during  retreat;  rebellion  in  face 
of  the  enemy,  cither  while  marching  against  or  retreating 
from  same,  while  being  pursued  at  less  than  two  days' 
march  distant  therefrom,  or  in  a  besieged  or  blockaded 
place  ;  espionage  committed  under  the  circumstances  men- 
tioned for  tho  crime  of  rebellion ;  violence  committed 
against  a  superior  officer ;  cowardice  ;  crimes  against  the 
existence,  security  or  preservation  of  the  army,  or  its 
belongings,  committed  in  face  of  the  enemy  or  in  a  besieged 
or  blockaded  place,  provided  the  penalty  determined  by  law 
shall  be  capital  punishment. 

In  order  to  determine  the  competency  of  the  Extraoi*di- 
nary  Council  of  War,  the  following  circumstances  must 
exist :  that  the  accused  persons  shall  be  apprehended  in 
fraganti;  that  not  more  than  24  hours  shall  have  transpired 
between  the  commission  of  the  crime  and  the  passing  of 
sentence,  at  the  simple  lapse  of  this  period  without  the 
guilty  person  being  tried,  nullifies  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Extraordinary  Council,  and  the  consideration  of  the  case 
shall  be  assigned  to  the  Ordinary  Council  ;  that  the  failure 
to  imme<.liately  apprehend  the  criminal,  implies  a  serious 


AND    ITS    IIsSTITUTIOXS.  229 

danger  to  the  existence  and  preservation  of  the  troops,  or 
the  success  of  military  operations. 

The  desii^nation  of  the  individuals  who  shall  compose  the 
Ordinary  Councils  of  War,  shall  be  made  by  the  War 
Department  in  vigorous  succession,  from  amongst  those 
comprised  in  a  list  which  shall  be  made  up  and  published 
annually,  and  in  which  shall  be  included,  in  conformity  with 
an  ancient  order,  the  names  of  the  generals  and  other  chiefs 
of  the  army,  who,  having  no  other  commissions  in  the 
service,  shall  be  eligible  to  discharge  the  duties  of  members 
of  the  Council. 

The  members  who  shall  compose  the  Extraordinary 
Council,  shall  be  selected  from  a  list  made  up  by  the  chief, 
whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  convoke  a  Council  of  War,  in 
which  shall  appear  the  names  of  all  the  military  officials 
of  the  required  rank  who  may  be  subject  to  its  orders  and 
disposable  for  this  service.  In  this  list  shall  be  included 
even  those  who  are  not  in  active  service. 

Supreme  Military  Court. —  This  tribunal  shall  be  com- 
posed of  eight  magistrates,  of  which  the  first  five  shall  be 
military  officers  and  the  other  three  lawyers,  and  six  super- 
numeraries, four  of  whom  shall  be  military  officers,  and 
two  lawyers.  All  of  these  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Chief 
Executive  of  the  Nation. 

The  first  regular  magistrate,  who  must  be  a  General  of 
Division,  shall  be  the  President  of  the  Court,  and  the 
second,  who  shall  be  of  equal  rank,  or  active  General  of 
Brigade,  shall  be  the  Vice-President. 

In  order  to  be  a  military  magistrate,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  individual  possess  the  permanent  rank  of  active  Gen- 
eral of  the  Armv  ;  and  in  order  to  be  a  consultiujy  maijis- 
trate,  the  person  must  be  a  Mexican  citizen  in  the  exercise 
of  his  rights,  be  35  years  of  age,  and  a  lawyer  for  at  least 
10  years,  as  required  by  law.  These  possess  the  character 
of  actual  and  permanent  Generals  of  the  Army. 


230  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

For  the  proper  dispatch  of  the  business  which  corre- 
sponds to  it,  the  Court  t-hall  sit  in  full  tribunal  or  divided 
into  two  courts  with  the  requisite  secretaries  and  notaries. 
The  full  tribunal  shall  be  composed  of  all  the  magistrates, 
both  regular  and  supernumerary,  and  shall  not  hold  ses- 
sion with  less  than  seven  members.  The  tirst  Court  shall 
consist  of  five  magistrates,  of  which  two  shall  be  lawyers, 
and  the  second  Court,  of  three,  one  of  whom  must  be  a 
lawyer. 

Each  of  the  courts  shall  have  a  chief  officer.  The  secre- 
taries, with  the  exception  of  the  one  pertaining  to  the 
second  court,  shall  possess  the  title  of  colonels  of  cavalry  ; 
the  secretary'  of  the  latter  shall  have  the  title  of  Colonel  of 
Infantry.  The  chief  official  and  the  notary  of  the  tirst  court 
shall  possess  the  title  of  Colonel  of  Cavalry,  and  the  chief 
official  of  the  second  court  that  of  Lieutenant  Colonel  of  In- 
fantry. These  functionaries  are  also  appointed  by  the  Chief 
Executive  of  the  Nation.  The  principal  attributes  of  the  full 
tribunal  are  as  follows,  to  suggest  to  the  War  De[)artment 
the  necessar}'  modifications  regarding  militaiy  legislation 
and  the  appropriate  instruction  for  the  proper  administra- 
tion of  justice;  pass  opinions  upon  matters  of  law  as 
directed  by  the  judicial  functionaries  of  the  militarv  order, 
try  cases  as  to  the  responsibility  of  the  magistrates  of  the 
court,  the  solicitor  general  or  their  assistants,  military 
chiefs  authorized  to  dictate  orders  of  procedure,  and 
counsel;  reverse  the  sentences  pronounced  by  the  extraor- 
dinary counsels  of  war  as  to  responsibility  and  as  to  the 
nullity  in  certain  cases  of  competent  jurisdiction  ;  reverse 
the  decisions  of  the  military  chiefs  in  oider  not  to  dictate 
the  order  of  procedure. 

The  first  Court  shall  pass  upon  the  legal  disputes  which 
may  arise  between  the  military  tribunals  of  the  first  class; 
of  matters  invading  apj^eid,  of  appeal  refused  and  revision 
in  cases  dctermiueil  !)}■  law,  of  the  excuse  ot  iniiitary  chiefs 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  231 

in  processes  being  or  which  have  been  passed  upon  by  the 
same  court. 

The  second  Court  shall  pass  upon  the  pleas  of  the  military 
chiefs  in  cases  which  are  being  or  have  been  passed  upon 
by  said  Court ;  also  of  the  application  for  revision,  whose 
consideration  does  not  belong  to  the  Full  Tribunal  or  to  the 
first  Court. 

Instructing  Judges.  —  For  the  proper  formation  of  trials, 
there  have  been  located  Judges  of  Instruction  in  every  local- 
ity where  permanent  counsels  of  war  have  been  established 
and  where  such  do  not  exist,  or  where  it  may  be  necessary 
to  substitute  a  judge  by  reason  of  the  rank  of  the  accused 
person,  in  which  case  a  special  appointment  shall  be  made. 

The  permanent  judges  shall  be  colonels  or  lieutenant 
colonels  of  the  army,  and  are  appointed  by  the. War  Depart- 
ment; and  the  others  who  must  be  generals,  chiefs  or 
officials  of  equal  or  higher  rank  than  that  of  the  accused, 
shall  be  appointed  by  the  military  chief  whose  intervention 
may  be  necessary  in  the  suit  or  trial. 

The  Instructing  Judges  perform  their  judicial  functi^ons 
with  secretaries  appointed  also  by  the  War  Department 
and  act  under  the  direction  of  the  Military  Chief  upon 
whom  they  depend. 

Counsellors.  —  These  functionaries  study  and  consider 
the  questions  of  right  which,  in  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice, the  Military  Chiefs  having  the  right  to  determine  the 
final  action  against  the  parties  responsible  for  the  com- 
mission of  the  crimes,  may  indicate.  They  are  appointed 
at  the  will  of  the  executive,  and  must  be  at  least  30  years 
of  age,  five  years  a  lawyer  and  Mexican  citizens  in  the  full 
enjoyment  of  their  rights. 

In  these  localities  where  permanent  Councils  of  War 
have  been  established,  there  is  a  counsellor  attached  to  the 
respective  Military  Chief,  with  the  title  of  Colonel  of 
Cavalry.     The  Counsellors  attached  to  the  chiefs  in  whose 


232  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

territorial  jurisdiction  there  is  no  permanent  Council  of 
War  possess  the  character  of  Lieutenant  Colonels  of  the 
same  class.  In  the  military  headquarters  of  the  Federal 
District  there  are  four  Counsellors  attached  to  the  four 
courts  of  permanent  instruction  which  exist  therein. 

Defenders.  —  The  defenders  in  the  trial  subject  to 
military  jurisdiction  may  be  freely  named  by  the  cul- 
prits, from  among  the  persons  who  may  or  may  not 
belong  to  the  military  class.  Generals  are  prohibited 
from  defending  members  of  the  army  of  rank  inferior 
to  themselves.  Outside  of  such  cases  the  defenders 
are  appointed  by  the  War  Department  from  among  the 
officials  and  chiefs  of  the  army ;  only  those  who  are  ex- 
pected to  act  in  conjunction  with  the  military  court,  are  not 
required  to  belong  to  it ;  it  is  sufficient  that  they  are  Mexi- 
can citizens  in  the  exercise  of  their  rights,  that  they  are 
over  25  yenTs  of  age  and  have  been  lawyers  for  at  least  two 
years. 

The  official  defenders  are  prohibited  from  receiving  any 
renumeration  from  their  clients. 

There  are  in  the  military  command  of  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict four  official  defenders,  one  for  each  court  of  instruc- 
tion that  may  there  exist.  In  the  Military  Court  there  are 
two  with  the  title  of  Colonels  of  Cavalry. 

THE  COURT  OF  INQUIRY  (MINISTERIO  PUBLICO). 

This  court  has  been  established  for  the  purpose  of.  aiding 
in  the  administration  of  justice  and  securing  proper  com- 
pliance with  the  rulings  of  the  Tribunals  of  Justice,  it  is 
aided  in  its  work  by  the  judicial  Military  Police. 

The  Court  of  Inquiry  is  composed  of  the  following 
persons:  the  General  Military  Solicitor ;  two  auxiliaries  of 
the  latter,  two  agents  attached  to  each  of  the  permanent 
courts  of  instruction,  and  the  others  who  must  intervene  in 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  233 

the  trials  which  are  presided  over  l)y  the  non-permanent 
instructing  judges  and  who  are  appointed  by  the  authority 
who  ordei°the  legal  action.  The  solicitor  and  other  agents 
are  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  Republic. 

The  Solicitor  General  takes  the  rank  of  permanent  gen- 
eral of  Brigade  of  the  Array,  his  auxilary  agents  that  of 
Colonels  of  Cavalry,  and  the  agents  attached  to  the  courts 
of  instruction,  that  of  Majors,  at  least. 

The  same  qualifications  are  necessary  for  the  post  of 
solicitor  as  are  required  for  that  of  magistrate  of  the  court ; 
for  the  post  of  auxiliary  agent  -of  the  solicitor  the  same 
qualifications  are  required  as  for  that  of  Counsellor.  The 
other  asents  must  be  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and,  among 
other  perquisites,  must  possess  aptitude  for  discharging  the 
duties  intrusted  to  them  at  the  pleasure  of  the  authority 
who  must  appoint  them. 

MILITARY   JUDICIAL   POLICE. 

The  object  of  this  body  is  to  assist  the  military  tribunals 
in  the  investigation  of  crimes,  the  collection  of  proof  and 
the  discovery  of  the  delinquents.  It  works  through  the 
medium  of  provosts,  through  the  military  police,  through 
the  officials  in  guard  of  stations,  through  the  officers  of  the 
week,  captains  of  barracks  within  their  respective  quarters, 
through  the  permanent  judges  of  instruction,  through  the 
majoi^  in  command  of  stations,  or  chiefs  of  superior  rank, 
or  their  assistants,  and  through  the  Court  of  Inquiry. 
These  functionaries  may,  in  case  of  necessity,  request  the 
assistance  of  the  militia  and  that  of  the  municipal  police. 

CRIMES,  MISDEMEANORS  AND  PENALTY. 

The   existing   military  penal   code  makes  the   following 
clas^fication  of  military  crimes  and  misdemeanors : 

1st.   Crijnes  against  Military  Duty.  —  Voluntary  inutil- 


234  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

ity  for  the  purpose  of  withclniwing  from  the  service, 
incorrigible  conduct,  absence  from  the  reviews  of  the 
battalion  or  regiment,  disobedience,  insubordination,  insults 
or  violence  directed  against  sentinels,  guards  or  safegutirds, 
threatenings,  undue  deliberation,  evil  intentions,  sedition, 
infraction  of  sentinel's,  duties,  offenses  committed  by 
prisoners  of  war,  fligiit  of  these  or  of  military  prisoners, 
abandonment  of  posts  or  of  military  points,  commissions  of 
the  service,  command  or  arrests,  unnecessary  capitulation, 
cowardice  or  puerile  acts  committed  through  same,  deser- 
tion, duels,  infraction  of  military  duties  not  specified  in  the 
Code. 

2nd.  Crimes  Committed  in  the  Exercise  of  Military 
Duties  or  by  reason  of  same,  drunkenness,  revelation  of 
secrets  pertaining  to  the  service,  falseness,  simulation  or 
concealment  of  any  personal  circumstances,  falsification  in 
the  lists  of  soldiers,  animals,  marches  or  fonige,  false  inform- 
ation, abuse  of  authority,  abuse  in  the  matter  of  lodgment  or 
in  the  acquisition  of  means  of  transport,  maltreatment  of 
prisoners  or  wounded  soldiers,  violence  against  incarcerated 
prisoners,  outrages  and  offenses  against  the  military  and 
civil  police,  violence  against  persons  in  general,  pillage 
appropriation  of  booty,  despoliiition  of  wounded  prisoners 
or  corpses,  destruction  or  devastation  of  property  in  gen- 
eral, peculatic-n  and  exactions,  smuggling,  rebellion,  treason, 
usurpation  of  authority,  commission  or  functions  of  the  ser- 
vice, of  the  name  of  superior  of  uniform,  of  insignias  or  of 
offices. 

3d.  Crimes  Against  tJie  Existence^  Security  or  Preserva- 
tion of  the  Army  or  its  Delongintjs. —  False  alarm,  secretion , 
giving  away  or  destruction  of  the  property  belonging  to 
the  army,  espionage,  incitement  for  the  purpose  of 
serving  the  enemy. 

4th.  Offenses  Committed  in  the  Administration  of  Mili- 
tary Justice  or  on  account  of  same,  offenseson  the  part  of  the 


AN®    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  235 

functionaries  and  others  emplo3'ed  in  the  administration  of 
military  justice,  in  the  discharge  of  their  respective  duties, 
offenses  committed  in  the  name  of  military  justice,  offenses 
of  the  common  order  subject  to  the  laws  of  war. 

5th.  Faults.  —  Those  consisting  of  the  infraction  of  mili- 
tary rules  or  the  decrees  of  the  military  police,  are  punish- 
able by  the  tribunals  of  war,  or  administratively  through 
correctionary  discipline. 

PENALTY. 

In  the  matter  of  crimes,  offenses  and  faults  in  general, 
the  tribunals  of  war  are  subject  to  the  dispositions  of  the 
Penal  Code  of  the  Federal  District,  in  as  far  as  same  does 
not  conflict  with  the  Code  of  military  justice. 

The  following  persons  are  criminally  responsible  before 
the  military  tribunals:  members  of  the  army,  officials 
(  "  asimilados  "  ),  those  connected  with  same  and  those 
citizens  who  appear  as  authors,  accomplices  or  concealers  of 
crimes  or  offenses  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  war.  By 
*'  asimilados  '  are  understood  those  individuals  who  render 
services  in  the  army  distinct  from  actual  military  duty, 
but  who  receive  pay  from  the  Federation  and  the  considera- 
tion due  to  soldiers. 

The  punishments  applicable  by  the  tribunals  of  war  are: 

Expulsion,  in  public  or  private;  An^est,  which  is 
divided  into  minimum,  covering  from  one  to  30  days,  and 
maximum,  from  31  days  to  eleven  months;  Ordinary  Im- 
prisonment, in  the  military  prison,  castle  or  fortress 
designated  by  the  War  Department,  in  a  separate  cell,  with- 
out communication  by  day  or  night.  This  may  last  for  a 
term  of  eleven  months  without  exceeding  fifteen  years. 

Extraordinary  Imprisonment ,  substituted  for  the  death 
penalty  in  certain  cases  as  provided  by  law,  lasts  for  twenty 
years,  and  is  applied  in  the  same  way  as  ordinary  imprison- 


236  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

ment:  Remaiulinrj  to  Service,  applicable  onh'  to  members 
of  tho  troops,  consists  in  depriving  them  of  the  right  to 
request  their  discharge  from  the  army,  even  though  they 
should  have  completed  their  term  of  enlistment,  for  the 
period  assigned  by  the  penalt}' :  /Suspension  from  employ- 
ment or  commission,  which  entails  the  deprivation  of  the 
emoluments  to  which  the  culprit  may  be  entitled ;  Dis- 
missal from  service,  the  death  penalty,  which  is  inflicted 
by  shooting  the  criminal,  but  it  is  not  permitted  to  torture 
the  culprits  previous  to  their  execution. 

LATEST  CHANGES  IN  THE  CODE  OF  MILITARY  JUSTICE. 

V.  The  Code  of  ]Military  Justice,  which  became  effective 
January  1st  of  the  present  year  (1893),  introduced  impor- 
tant changes  in  what  was  known  as  Military  Jurisprudence, 
which  was  contained  in  the  third  volume  of  the  general 
army  ordinances.  These  modifications  consist  chiefly  in 
the  organization  of  the  tribunals,  in  the  appeals  and  in  the 
penalties. 

The  new  law  did  not  limit  the  jurisdiction  of  war;  but 
the  common  offenses  committed  within  a  military  district, 
and  which  was  formerly  called  military  oflenses,  are  now 
known  as  common  ofi"euses  punishable  by  military  courts. 

TRIBUNALS. 

The  Military  Court  of  Inquiry  is  composed  of  a  solicitor 
general,  two  agents  and  the  ago*nts  attached  to  Courts  of 
First  Inquiry.  The  Military  Court  of  Inquiry  is  entrusted 
with  the  prosecution  of  crimes  and  tho  right  and  prompt 
administration  of  justice.  The  agent  of  the  Court  of 
lucpiiry  must  be  of  equal  or   superior  rank  to  the  accused. 

All  members  of  tho  army  are  obliged  to  act  as  defenders 
when  so  appointed,  but  generals  cannot  defend  individuals 


AND   ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


237 


of  lesser  rank  than  that  of  General  of  Brigade.  The  mili- 
tary chiefs  are  judges  and  impose  penalties,  in  consultation 
with  the  consulting  lawyer,  provided  the  punishment  of 
the  crime  equals  at  most  eleven  months  of  arrest.  Exceed- 
in  cr  this  period,  the  ordinary  councils  of  war  consider  the 


case. 


These  councils  are  called  permanent  and  are  constituted 
as  follows:  Seven  proprietary  voters  designated  by  the 
War  Department,  and  the  necessary  substitutes  to  take  the 
place  of  any  absentees..  When  the  culprit  is  of  superior 
rank  to  any  of  the  voters,  the  council  is  made  up  from 
members  drawn  in  consecutive  term  from  a  list 
which  must  be  published  by  the  War  Department, 
and  in  which  appear  the  names  of  the  officials 
eligible  for  such  service,  as  provided  by  an  ancient  order. 
In'the  various  zone  the  military  heads  carry  this  into  effect. 
There  exist  permanent  Councils  of  War  as  follows  :  Two  in 
the  Military  Headquarters  of  the  Federal  District,  one  in 
the  General  Headquarters  of  each  zone  and  one  in  the  Mili- 
tary  Headquarters  designated  by  the  Secretary  of  War. 

The  members  of  the  Council  of  War  are  refusable  to  the 
number  of  those  without  cause  and  must  be  excused  when 
they  have  any  legal  impediment. 

The  Extraordinary  Councils  of  War  are  also  composed 
of  seven  voters  drawn  at  random  from  the  best  of  officials 
made  up  by  the  chiefs  empowered  to  convoke  a  session  of 
the  council.  Those  councils  try  crimes  of  a  somewhat 
grave  character;  but  it  is  necessary  that  the  criminal  shall 
have  been  apprehended  in  fraganti  and  that  twenty-four 
hours  shall  not  have  passed  between  the  commission  of  the 
crime  and  the  sentencing  of  the  culprit. 

The  trials  are  arranged  by  instructing  judges  who,  upon 
termination  of  the  preliminary  proceedings  and  the  declara- 
tion that  the  council  is  prepared  to  go  into  session,  the 
day  having  been  fixed  ;  present  themselves  at  the  conven- 


238  THE    KICHES    OF    MEXICO. 

tioii  which  is  composed  of  the  President  of  the  Council, 
who  is  of  the  highest  rank  and  at  the  same  time  President 
of  the  Debates.  This  latter  personage  seats  himself  at  the 
spot  most  convenient,  the  Advising  Attorney  at  his  right 
and  the  Instructing  Judge  at  his  left.  At  the  right  of  the 
Advising  Attorney  are  seated  those  voters,  and  three  more 
at  the  left  of  the  Instructing  Judge, 

In  their  respective  places,  are  then  seated  the  agent  of 
the  Court  of  Inquiry  at  the  right  of  the  President  of  the 
Debates,  at  the  left  the  defender  or  defenders  of  the 
accused,  the  latter  being  seated  on  a  bench  in  front.  The 
Council  must  decide  upon  the  questions  which  the  advising 
lawyer  may  submit,  and  pronounce  sentence  in  secret  ses- 
sion. This  sentence  passes  to  the  Supreme  Military  Court 
(formerly  Supreme  Court  of  Military  Justice)  in  revision 
or  appeal. 

The  Supreme  Military  Court  •  is  composed  of  two 
chambers,  the  first  and  second,  composed  as  follows: 
the  first  of  five  magistrates,  three  generals  and  two 
lawyers  with  the  character  of  generals  of  brigade ; 
the  second,  of  two  generals  and  one  lawyer. 
These  are  called  regular,  in  addition  to  which  there 
are  six  supernumeraries, — four  military  and  two  legal, 
who  act  as  substitutes  for  the  regular,  and  form  part  of 
the  full  tribunal.  Each  chamber  has  its  own  President, 
and  in  the  full  tril)unal  the  President  of  the  first  chamber 
presides,  he  being  considered  as  chief  of  the  Administra- 
tion of  Justice  in  the  tril)unal  of  war.  The  first  court  con- 
siders appeals,  the  second,  revisions. 

OF    APPEALS. 

Sentence  having  been  pronounced  by  a  petty  tribunal, 
if  the  interested  parties  are  satisfied  with  the  decision,  Iho 
matter    passes    to    the    second    chamber   of   the  Supreme 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  239 

Military  Court  for  revision,  in  order  to  determine  whether 
there  has  been  any  violation  of  the  law  and  place  the  re- 
sponsiijility  where  it  belongs.  If  the  parties,  or  any  one 
of  them,  are  not  satisfied,  appeal  is  then  resorted  to  and 
the  matter  goes  to  the  first  chamber  for  second  trial.  For 
three  days  proofs  are  received.  The  parties  may  request 
proofs,  provided  that  which  they  request  has  not  already 
been  considered  in  the  first  trial.  The  day  being  set  for  a 
hearing,  the  parties  allege  and  the  court  within  the  period 
of  eight  days  must  pronounce  sentence  changing,  nullifying 
or  confirming  the  judgment  already  passed.  If  the  culprit 
is  the  appellant,  no  greater  penalty  can  be  inflicted  than 
that  already  determined  by  the  first  court.  This  appeal 
may  also  be  interposed  during  \he  trial  for  any  decision 
which  may  cause  injury  and  which  may  be  specified  by  the 
law.  Besides  the  recourse  of  appeal,  the  law  allows 
that  of  explanation  of  sentence  and  denied  appeal.  The 
first  is  in  case  the  parties  believe  that  the  sentence  of  the 
court  is  obscure;  and  must  be  resorted  to  the  moment  the 
decision  has  been  given,  while  the  tribunal  must  decide 
clearly  upon  the  appeal.  The  second  is  resorted  to  when 
appeal  has  been  denied,  or  when  it  has  been  granted  with 
certain  restrictions  ("  en  el  efecto  devolutive  ").  There 
exists  in  the  law  which  has  just  been  repealed,  the  appeal 
of  abrogation  (casacion)  submitted  to  the  universal  laws 
which  govern  such  matters,  and  which  were  provided  for 
in  the  ordinance  in  question. 

OF    PENALTIES. 

The  following  are  now  regarded  as  military  crimes: 
Voluntary  inutility,  disobedience,  insubordination,  insults 
or  violence  directed  against  sentinels,  guards,  or  safe- 
guards, calumny,  undue  deliberation,  sedition  or  mutiny, 
infraction  of  sentinel's  duties,  infringement  of  duties   of 


240  THE   RICHES    OF    MEXICO. 

prisoners  of  war,  evasion  of  same  or  of  military  arrests, 
abandonment,  unnecessary  capitulation,  cowardice,  deser- 
tion, dueling,  intoxication,  revelation  of  secrets,  falsehood, 
abus'e  of  authority,  maltreatment  of  prisoners  or  persons 
under  arrest,  abuse  of  the  military  or  civil  police,  maraud- 
ing, pillage,  destruction,  stealing,  exaction,  smuggling, 
rebellion,  treason,  usurpation  of  authority,  false  alarms, 
embezzlement,  transfer  or  destruction  of  property  belong- 
ing to  the  army,  espionage,  instigation  for  the  purpose  of 
helping  the  enemy,  and  crimes  committed  in  the  military 
administration. 

In  general,  the  new  law  is  much  more  lenient  than  the 
old  one ;  it  only  requires  that  the  culprit  who  has  been  guilty 
while  the  third  part  of  the  ordinance  has  been  in  force, 
shall  request  the  application  of  the  most  favorable  law,  iu 
order  that  the  tribunals  shall  grant  to  his  demand. 

This  new  law  is  extolled  by  all  as  being  just,  legal  and 
adequate  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  Mexican  army, 
without  departing  from  the  universal  rules  governing 
military  rights. 

If  it  possesses  any  defects,  practice  will  soon  demonstrate 
wherein  they  lie,  in  order  that  proper  correction  may  be 
made  of  same. 


NATIONAL  NAVY. 
ORGANIZATION  WORKS. 

VI.  All  the  governments  of  Mexico  since  it  gained  inde- 
pendence have  made  great  sacrifices  to  establish  a  well 
organized  navy,  and  yet,  in  spite  of  all,  they  have  not  suc- 
ceeded in  securing  even  a  medium  one,  in  a  branch  of 
national  defense  which  is  so  important. 

In  1829  the  fleet  consisted  of  1  war  ship,  2  frigates,  1 
corvet,  i  brigs,  5  schooners,  2  other  fore  and  aft  schooners 


AND   ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  241 

and  4  gunboats,  and  the  estimate  of  expenses  amounted  to 

$1,289,262.  .         1      1         ^u 

In  1846,  the  small  squadrons  that  used  to  ply  along  the 
coasts  of  theKepublic  disappeared;  out  of  a  principle  of 
national  honor  three  vessels  were  disarmed  and  sunk  in  the 
Atlantic  in  order  to  obstrud:  approaches  and  to  avoid  bemg 
taken    by    the   North    American    squadron.     Twenty-one 
captains  of  war-ships  and  of  frigates  and  over  one  hundred 
and  fourteen  officers  who  formed  the  commanding  body  of 
the  navy  were  employed  in  land  service  till  1848,  when 
they  were  appointed  to  the  few  places  which  were  to  remain 
in  the  navy,  whilst  to  all  who  were  not  given   portions 
retirement  for  an  unlimited  period  was  granted.     With  the 
schooner  -  Fortuna,"  which  cost  the  Government  six  thou- 
sand  dollars,  a  beginning  was  made  in  1849  in  the  formation 
of  the  new  fleet  which  was  now  indispensable  in  order  to 
give  security  to  the  coasts,  to  protect  commerce  and  to 
prevent  smuggling.  ,  .  , 

The  Secretary  of  War  and  of  the  navy  in  a  memorial 
presented  by  him  to  the  Congress  in  1890,  thus  expressed 
himself  about  what  the  Mexican  navy  had  been  :  "  A  series 
of  trials  and  attempts  without  agreement,  without  plan  and 
without  resources   and    in    consequence   a   succession    of 
disasters,suchhas  been  since  the  independence  the  history  of 
our  war  and  merchant  navy.    In  these  attempts  mcalculable 
sums  of  money  have  been  simply  thrown  away  and  what  is 
more  lamentable  still  is  that  numbers  of  citizens  have  been 
uselessly   sacrificed;    for   deprived    of   natural  resources, 
without  experience  and  relying  merely  on  their  enthusiasm 
and  bravery  they  were  obliged  to  yield  to  the  indisputable 
superiority  of  very  skillful  adversaries.     Events  which  ai^ 
not  very  distant  warn  us  of  the  importance  which  a  well 
organized   navy   has  even   among  nations   which   do    not 
as;ireto  play  a  grand  part  among  maritime  powers      In 
the  year  1829  Barradas  without  being  noticed  landed  on 


242  Tin:  riches  of  Mexico 

the  Gulf  coast  and  encamped  on  the  bank  of  the  Panuco. 
At  least  300  years  before  this  time  the  natives  of  Tabasco 
were  already  acquainted  with  seafaring  matter  and  a  number 
of  larsfe  Indian  canoes  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  brio's 
of  Cortes.  In  the  year  1838  the  squadron  of  Baudin  cast 
anchor  at  the  foot  of  the  fortress  at  Ulua  and  displays 
under  our  eyes  the  preparations  made  for  an  assault.  In 
1847  Scott  was  easily  able  to  cast  among  us  from  his  war 
vessels  3,600  bombs  and  plough  up  with  his  boats  the 
waters  of  the  port.  Lastly  we  remember  with  what  ease 
we  have  seen  the  soldiers  of  Napoleon  III.  repulsed  from 
the  stronghold  of  Mazatlan  and  yet  lind  security  in  their 
boats,  and  then  when  out  of  our  reach  throw  a  parting  shot 
among  us  as  they  were  being  lost  to  sight  in  the  immensity 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  inaction  of  the  governments 
would  awaken  in  us  a  feeling  of  shame  and  indignation  if 
history,  or  rather  the  actual  facts,  did  not  justify  our 
country  which  had  just  broken  its  prison  bonds  and  was 
weak,  inexperienced  in  war,  engaged  in  social  reforms  and 
enveloped  in  an  immense  strife  and  had  not  therefore  time 
to  devote  itself  to  technical  studies  nor  the  means  to 
organize  schools.  But  to-day  it  has  them.  Peace  and 
national  prosperity,  the  consequence  of  peace,  are  a  living 
reality  and  nobody  can  now  doubt  that  it  is  our  duty  to 
guard  ourselves  againt  the  surjnises  of  the  future  and  to 
prepare  ourselves  for  resistance  now  that  we  have  been 
taught  by  our  many  calamities. 

In  effect  the  Republic  is  at  present  making  preparations 
to  become  a  maritime  nation.  The  Federal  Government 
is  making  efforts  to  increase  the  number  of  men-of-war 
and  to  secure  the  means  to  enable  it  to  watch  over  natioiud 
interests;  it  is  stimulating  the  progress  of  the  national 
merchant  navy  by  granting  it  absolute  protection  and  is 
undertaking  the  fonnation  of  a  body  of  marine  officers 
who    shall    be    well    instructed    in  all    the  advances    made 


AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS.  243 

in   the   sciences    as  well    as  in    the  practice  which    good 
service  in  the  navy  requires. 

For  this  object  it  has  ordered  the  establishment  of 
a  special  section  of  marine  studies  in  the  military  college, 
wherein  the  young  men  who  devote  themselves  to  a  naval 
life  may  receive  a  complete  scientific  education.  Several 
of  them  have  passed  on  to  practice  in  the  Spanish  navy 
as  midshipmen,  others  to  Ferrol  in  order  to  follow  the 
career  of  naval  engineers,  whilst  others  have  gone  to  sea  in 
the  Mexican  squadrons.  The  naval  schools  have  sent 
forth  from  their  bosoms  talented  pupils  who  have  passed 
on  to  practice  in  national  merchantmen  as  pilots  paid  by 
the  treasury. 

The  merchant  fleet  has  also  undergone  various  ups  and 
downs  owing  to  the  continued  state  of  political  agitation 
thioucrh  which  the  country  has  passed.  As  a  national 
industry  it  has  made  the  same  strides  in  progress  as  the 
other  industries  and  like  them  it  has  been  supported  for 
the  most  part  by  the  interior  markets  and  only  in  a  very 
small  degree  by  foreign  ones. 

As  regards  the  independence  of  the  merchant  fleet  here 
is  the  opinion  of  the  Secretary  of  War  as  given  in  the 
report  already  mentioned:  *' There  are  in  force  several 
laws  which  I  am  bound  to  observe  and  which  undoubtedly 
rest  upon  economic  and  political  grounds,  which  again  are 
founded  on  scientific  principles,  but  I  may  be  allowed  to 
presume  that  the  absolute  independence  of  the  merchant 
fleet  authorized  perhaps  by  an  erroneous  interpretation  of 
the  laws,  has  for  a  long  time  deprived  us  of  one  of  the 
most  fruitful  sources  of  wealth.  This  result  was  clearly 
seen  when  the  laws  of  the  Spanish  Cortes,  which  were  still 
in  force  in  Mexico  at  the  end  of  the  war  of  independence, 
admitted  conscription  but  rejected  enrollment.  Then  in 
1841  when  the  naval  ordinances  put  in  force  the  system  of 
enrollment  the  progress  of  the  navy  was  at  once  evident 


244  THE   RICHES   OF   MEXICO 

as  it  was  now  protected  both  by  its  distinctive  rights 
and  able  to  support  itself  by  the  mere  traffic  along  the 
coasts. 

"  Inexperience  was  the  cause  of  the  abandonment  of  the 
protective  system  and  the  navy  once  more  entered  upon  a 
period  of  decline.  On  the  re-establishment  of  the  Re- 
public a  subvention  was  given  to  it ;  but  this  means,  which 
was  suitable  at  that  time,  has  now  become  unnecessary. 
At  present  we  are  able  to  strengthen  our  merchant  navy, 
by  uniting  it  with  the  war  fleet  so  that  it  may  act  in  con- 
junction with  the  latter  for  common  interests  that  is  in 
defending  the  country." 

Many  regulations  have  been  dictated  by  the  Secretary 
of  "War  since  1879,  with  the  object  of  thoroughly  reorgan- 
izing the  fleet.  It  would  be  tedious  and  perhaps  useless  to 
enumerate  them ;  the  first  ones  were  remolded  in  the  law  of 
the  28th  of  June,  1881,  and  this,  along  with  later  laws,  was 
annulled  by  the  new  ordinance  of  the  war  fleet  promul- 
gated on  the  4th  of  July,  1891,  and  which  came  into  force 
on  the  16th  of  September  of  the  same  year. 

This  ordinance  took  the  place  of  the  old  ones  of  the 
years  1793  and  1802  which,  with  some  few  modifications, 
had  till  then  remained  in  force  although  in  some  particulars 
they  were  in  direct  opposition  to  the  political  organization 
of  the  Republic. 

THE   PRESENT   ADMINISTRATION   OF   THE  NAVY. 

The  naval  administration  of  the  Republic  is  under  the 
charge  of  the  Central  Department  of  the  Navy  in  the  War 
Secretaryship;  under  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  Department; 
under  the  Pacific  Ocean  Department,  under  the  twelve 
harbor-masters  who  in  their  turn  are  dependent  on  the 
Gulf  Department  and  under  fifteen  who  are  subject  to  the 
Pacific  Department. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  245 

The  Naval  Department  is  the  central  and  advising  office 
for  all  the  others  belonging  to  this  branch.  It  has  the 
powers  and  is  supplied  with  the  staff  to  undertake  the 
labors  of  the  department  as  has  been  already  mentioned 
elsewhere. 

The  Gulf  and  Pacific  Departments  are  established,  the 
first  in  Veracruz  and  the  second  in  Mazatlan,  and  both  have 
under  their  charge  the  squadrons  in  their  respective  seas, 
the  direction  of  the  merchantmen  and  general  police  and 
military  inspection  within  the  limits  marked  out  for  their 
jurisdiction.  The  staff  of  each  is  composed  of  1  man- 
of-war  captain  who  is  chief  of  the  Department,  1  frigate 
captain,  judge  instructor,  1  first  lieutenant,  secretary,  1 
sub-lieutenant,  storekeeper,  2  clerks  and  1  first  ordinance 
sailor. 

The  Harbor-masters  of  the  Republic  are  25  in  number 
and  have  under  their  care  the  surveillance  of  the  ports, 
roadsteads  and  bays.  The  chief  duties  of  the  captains  who 
serve  them  are :  to  see  that  vessels  are  properly  anchored 
or  moored  and  that  due  order  is  observed  inloading  and  un- 
loading ;  to  direct  their  entrances  and  departures  and  all 
maneuvers  that  take  place  in  the  harbors,  as  well  as  to  in- 
spect and  watch  over  the  lighthouses;  to  practice  a  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  ports  having  regard  to  their  plans  and 
other  data  and  information  which  they  may  obtain  and  this 
by  going  with  the  official  pilots ;  to  advise  the  captains  or 
shippers  of  national  merchant  vessels  when  they  are  ill- 
supplied  with  masts,  yards,  rigging,  cables,  etc.,  or  when 
they  are  overloaded  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  them  ex- 
posed to  an  accident;  to  see  that  they  do  not  set  sail  before 
they  are  provided  with  all  necessaries  or  before  they  are 
lightened  and  that  they  draw  sufficient  water.  It  is  also 
incumbent  on  the  harbor-masters  to  examine  the  smaller 
craft  in  order  to  inform  themselves  of  their  condition ;  to 
give  without  any  delay  whatever  the  necessary  assistance 


246  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

in  cases  of  the  irroundins  or  losino'  of  vessels  on  enterins:  or 
leaving  port  and  also  to  do  all  that  is  requisite  when  ves- 
sels are  run  into  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  serious 
damages,  etc.,  etc. 

The  habor-mastership  of  Veracruz  is  composed  of  1 
corvet  captain  or  first  lieutenant,  1  second  lieutenant, 
interpreter  and  secretary,  1  clerk,  1  first  boatswain,  watch- 
man, 1  third  boatswain,  master,  4  second  quarter-masters 
and  3  first  sailors,  oarsmen. 

The  harbor-master's  staff  at  Mazatlan  consists  of  1  cor- 
vet captain  or  first  lieutenant,  1  second  lieutenant,  1  clerk, 
1  third  boatswain,  watchman,  1  first  quartermaster,  mas- 
ter, 2  second  quartermasters,  oarsmen,  and  5  first  sailors, 
also  oarsmen. 

The  remaining  harbor-masterships  are  made  up  of  180 
persons  and  each  of  them  is  under  the  direction  of  one 
second  lieutenant  or  of  one  sub-lieutenant. 

The  positions  of  harbor-masters  are  divided  according 
to  their  degree  of  importance  into  first,  second  and  third 
class. 

The  following  are  those  of  the  Gulf  with  their  class  and 
geographical  limits  of  jurisdiction  ;  Matamoros,  third  class, 
jurisdiction  extending  from  the  center  of  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Bravo  to  three  miles  north  of  the  bar  of  Soto  la  Marina. 
Tampico,  second  class,  from  that  place  to  "  Cabo  Rojo." 
T^ixpan,  third  class,  from  the  last  point  to  three  miles 
south  of  the  bar  of  the  river  Cazones.  Veracruz^  first  class, 
from  the  last  point  to  three  miles  south  of  the  river's 
mouth.  Anton  Li::ardo  from  the  last  mentioned  point 
to  Ihroo  miles  south  of  the  bar  of  Sauleconiapan.  Coat- 
zacoalcoSy  second  class,  from  the  last  point  to  three 
miles  east  of  the  bar  of  Santa  Ana,  Frontera^  third 
class,  from  that  point  to  three  miles  north  of  the  bar  of 
San  Pedro  y  San  Pablo  ;  Isla  del  Carmen^  second  class, 
from  the  last  [)oint  to  three  miles  nortli  of  Jovinal  Point  ; 


AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS.  247 

Campeche,  second  class,  from  Jovinal  Point  to  three  miles 
north  of  the  ranch  of  Clestum  ;  and  Progreso,  second  class, 
from  Celestum  to  the  boundary  line  between  the  Republic 
and  Guatemala. 

The  Harbor-masterships  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  their  class 
and  limits  of  jurisdiction,  are  as    follows:    Todos  Santos, 
third  class  (Lower  California),  from  the  boundary  line  of 
North    America  to  Eugenio    Point  or  Cape  St.  Eiigenio  : 
Isla  Guadalupe,  third  class  (Pacific  Ocean),  comprises  the 
group  of  islands  and  their  immediate  dependents:  Magda- 
lene Bay,  third  class  (Lower   California),  from    Eugenia 
Point  to  Rabbit  Point  or  Cape  ;  San  Lucas,  third  class,  from 
the  previous  point  to  Cape  Pulmo  (inclusively)  ;  La  Paz, 
second  class,  from  the  previous  point  to  the  right  bank  of 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Colorado ;   La  Libertad,  from  that 
point  to  Cape  Tepopa  (inclusively)  ;  Guaymas,  second  class, 
from  Cape  Tepopa  to  the  right  bank  of  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Fuerte  •,AUata,  second  class,  from  the  previously  men- 
tioned point  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Piaxtla  (exclusively) ; 
Mazatlan,  first  class,  from  the  last  point  to  the  mouths  of 
the  river  Cafias,  Teacapan  ;  San  Bias,  second  class,  from 
the     last    place     to    Point    Graham    (inclusively);    Islas 
Marias  take  in   the  islands  Revillagigedo,  whose  position 
with  regard   to   the  Marias,  is   about  176  or  200    leagues 
southwest  and  which  consist  of   the  islands  Locarro,  San 
Benito  and   Clarion ;    Manzanillo,  third  class,    from  Cape 
Graham  to  the  bar  of   Zacatula  (right  bank);   Acapulco, 
second  class,  from  that  point  to   the  jutting  point ;  Puerto 
Angel,  third  class,  from  the  previous  point  to  the  mouths 
of  the  river  called  Copalita  ;  Salina  Cruz,  third  class,  from 
the  previous  place  to  the  point  north  of  the  bar  of  Tonala  ; 
Tonald,  third  class,  from  the  last  point  to  Zacapulco;    and 
Soconusco,  third  class,  from  the  last  point  to  the  mouth  of 
the  river  called  Zuchiate. 


248  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 


THE    NATIONAL   FLEET, 


The  fleet  of  the  nation  consists  of  five  war  vessels, 
namely,  the  •'  Independencia,"  the  *'  Libertad,"  the  *'Xi- 
cotencatl "  and  the  second  fore-and-aft  schooner  "  Colon," 
which  are  all  dependent  on  the  Gulf  Department,  and  the 
gun-boat  "  Democrata,"  which  is  under  the  Pacific 
Department. 

There  are  two  naval  establishments :  The  Porfirio  Diaz 
Arsenal,  situated  in  Goatzacoalcos,  which  guards  the  war 
material  and  furnishes  important  services  to  national  and 
foreign  vessels,  and  the  Pedro  Saenz  de  Baranda  floating 
dock,  which  is  dependent  on  the  arsenal  and  opened  for 
the  service  of  the  port  where  it  is  situated  by  a  decree 
dated  the  1st  of  February,  1888.  Both  establishments  are 
supplied  with  the  necessary  foundries  and  endeavors  have 
been  made  to  give  them  the  extension  which  their  usefulness 
demands. 

The  steamers  "  Resguardo  de  Tampico,"  "Progreso," 
*' Campeche,"  "  Mazatlan  "  and  '*  Cuautheinoc  "  which 
previousl}'  formed  part  of  the  fleet,  were  made  over  by  a 
memorandum  of  the  President  on  the  15th  of  March,  1886, 
to  the  Secretaryship  of  the  Exchequer  for  fiscal  purposes. 
The  corvet  —  School  "  Zaragoza,"  is  a  beautiful  vessel  des- 
tined for  service  in  the  national  fleet.  It  Avas  built  in 
France  and  launched  in  the  year  1891.  Its  masts  are  like 
those  of  a  sailing  vessel  and  its  measurements  the  follow- 
ing: Length  of  water-line,  222  feet ;  breadth,  32.91  feet; 
mean  draft  of  water,  12.82  feet;  displacement,  1,221  tons  ; 
speed,  15  miles.  Its  guns  consist  of  4  cannons  of  472 
common  closure  (  cierre  comun),  2  of  57  "V"^  rapid  shooters, 
and  2  of  32  "V"  mitrailleurs.  It  is  capable  of  carrying 
230  men.  According  to  the  contract  its  building  cost  395,- 
699  Mexican  dollars. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  249 

We  are  told  that  in  the  fleets  of  the  world  there  is  only 
one  other  vessel  of  the  same  class  as  the  "  Zaragoza,"  and 
that  is  the  cruiser  "George  Bancroft,"  of  the  North 
American  navy. 

The  officers  and  crew  of  the  "  Zaragoza  "  are  made  up 
of:  1  man-of-war  captain,  commander,  1  frigate  captain, 
chief  of  details,  3  first  lieutenants,  3  second  lieutenants,  2 
sub-lieutenants,  3  first  marine  officers,  20  first  midshipmen, 
1  first  chief  engineer,  1  second  chief  engineer,  2  second 
engineers,  1  electric  engineer,  1  third  engineer,  12  mechan- 
ical apprentices,  1  first  boatswain,  2  second  constables, 
stewards,  waiters,  quartermasters,  gunners,  sailors,  etc., 
etc.,  numbering  altogether  139  persons. 

The  coast-guard  steamers  of  the  Mexican  navy  are  four 
in  number,  the  "Mazallan,"  the  "  Tampico,"  the  "  Cam- 
peche,"  and  the  "San  Bias,"  and  have  on  board  40 
men. 

The  merchant  fleet  is  as  follows :  33  steamers  with 
5,581.06  tons  burden,  and  208  sailing  vessels  with  a  tonnage 
of  9,109  tons. 

THE    STANDING    ARMY. 

VII.  On  the  30th  of  June,  1890,  the  effective  army  had 
13  Division  Generals,  83  Brigade  Generals,  14  retired  Gen- 
erals, 1,197  commanders  and  2,596  officers.  The  infantry 
troops  numbered  16,783,  the  cavalry  7,374,  the  artillery 
1,849,  the  Medical  Body  213,  the  Staffs  152,  the  Military 
Commanderships  4,  Engineers  900,  the  Supreme  Court  4 
ordinances,  and  the  Secretaryship  of  War  with  its  De- 
partments, 12.     These  figures  give  a  total  of  31,194  men. 

The  army  has  in  its  service  7,237  horses  and  2,400 
baggao-e  animals. 

The  weapons  of  the  infantry  consist  of  Kemington  rifles 
of  43  caliber  and  numbering  altogether  19,161  with  18,923 


250 


THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 


bayonets,  413  swords  and  1,718,499  cartridges,  586  Colt 
revolvers  with  22,056  cartridges  for  them. 

The  cavalry  arms  are  Remington  carbines,  caliber  58  and 
50.  The  number  of  them  is  8,870  with  543,953  cartridges  ; 
8,357  sabers  and  562  Remington  revolvers  and  20,906 
cartridges. 

The  artillery  is  supplied  with  its  proper  number  of 
breech-loading  cannons,  the  Bange  system  being  the  one 
adopted.  Its  effective  troops  consist  of  39  commanders, 
192  officers  and  1,849  men,  158  horses  and  1,124  mules. 

In  the  General  Park,  the  National  Palace,  in  the  store- 
houses of  the  artillery  establishments  and  among  the  fixed 
companies  at  the  various  ports  there  is  a  vast  number  of 
fire-arms  of  different  systems  and  calibers  and  a  good 
supply  of  ammunition,  lances,  hand-grenades,  battery  and 
mountain  cartridges  of  the  Reffye  system  and  for  rifled 
guns  of  every  caliber. 


CASTI.K    OK    SAN    JIAN    UE    Ul.UA,    Ol'I'OSITK    VERACRUZ. 
Mex.  A.  T.  D.  Lou  Siglos. 


BOOK    II. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  DESCRIPTION  AND 
POPULATION. 

(.251) 


CHAPTEE  I. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  MEXICO. 
SITUATION    AND    BOUNDARIES. 

I.  The  northern  boundaries  which  separate  Mexico  from 
the  North  American  Republic  have  gone  through  several 
changes  since  the  year  1795,  when  they  were  first  settled  be- 
tween that  Republic  and  the  Spanish  Vice-regal  Government. 
According  to  the  treaty  of  1819,  the  two  Floridas  were 
ceded  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  this  cession 
including  the  islands  adjacent  to  the  coast  and  depending 
on  those  provinces.  The  treaties  of  1828  were  entered 
into  with  the  object  of  ratifying  the  boundaries  recognized 
in  the  treaty  of  1819.  On  the  2d  of  February,  1848,  the 
treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo  was  signed,  under  which  the 
divisory  line  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico  was 
greatly  altered,  and  this  treaty  was  afterwards  confirmed 
and  slightly  modified  by  that  of  December  30th,  1853,  in 
the  following;  manner : 

Leaving  intact  the  same  boundary  line  between  the  two 
Californias,  as  already  defined  and  marked  in  accordance 
with  Art.  V.  of  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  "the 
boundary  between  the  two  Republics  is  declared  to  be  as 
follows:  commencing  in  the  Mexican  Gulf  at  a  distance  of 
three  leagues  from  the  shore,  the  line  starts  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Rio  Grande  as  stipulated  in  the  above  mentioned 
Art.  V.  of  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo;  from  thence, 
as  is  also  stipulated  in  that  article,  the  line  follows  the 
center  of  the  river  up  to  a  point  where  it  crosses  the  parallel 
of  31°  d7'  north  latitude ;  from  thence  it  follows  a  straight 

(253) 


254  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

line  due  west  for  u  distance  of  100  miles  ;  thence  due  south 
to  the  parallel  of  31^  20'  north  latitude;  from  that  point 
the  line  follows  this  last  parallel  to  the  meridian  111"  west 
of  Greenwich  ;  thence  in  a  straight  line  to  a  point  in  the 
Rio  Colorado  20  miles  below  the  junction  of  the  rivers  Gila 
and  Colorado;  and  from  thence,  following  the  center  of  the 
river  Colorado,  the  line  runs  iip  stream  till  it  meets  the 
present  boundary  line  between  the  twoCalifornias.* 

On  the  southeast,  Mexico  is  bounded  by  the  Eepublic  of 
Guatemala,  which  at  one  time  formed  a  part  of  its  terri- 
tory until  the  year  1824,  when  it  separated  on  the  fall  of 
the  Emperor  Iturbide.  The  boundaries  between  Guate- 
mala and  Mexico  crave  rise  to  complicated  diplomatic  ques- 
tions which  were  finally  settled  by  negotiations  in  1882. 

In  accordance  with  the  convention  of  the  23d  of  Sep- 
tember of  that  year,  signed  in  Mexico  City  by  plenijioten- 
tiaries  representing  both  nations,  a  scientific  commission 
was  appointed  composed  of  six  engineers  from  each  of 
the  contracting  parties.  This  body  was  commissioned  to 
definitely  specify  the  natural  points  constituting  the  boun- 
daries between  the  two  nations  and  to  set  up  the  proper 
landmarks  showing  the  artificial  lines. 

These  lines  were  specified  under  Article  III,  of  the  treaty 
of  the  first  of  March,  1883,  in  the  following  manner: 

"The  permanent  boundaries  between  the  two  nations 
shall  be  the  following:  1st.  The  center  line  of  the  Rio 
Suchiate,  starting  from  a  point  in  the  sea  distant  3  leagues 
from  its  mouth  and  following  the  river  upwards  by  its 
deepest  channel,  to  a  point  at  which  the  river  cuts  the 
vertical  plane  passing  through  the  highest  peak  of  the  vol- 
cano of  Tacana,  at  a  distance  of  25  meters  from  the  south- 
ernmost column  of  the  Talquian  Custom  House,  in  such  a 
manner  that  this  Custom  House  shall  remain  within  the 


*  Treaty  of  Lu  Mesillii  —  Art.  L 


AND    ITS   INSTITUTIONS.  255 

territory  belonging  to  Guatemala.  2d.  The  line  determined 
by  the  vertical  plane  above  spoken  of,  from  the  point 
where  it  meets  the  river  Suchiate,  up  to  its  intersection 
with  the  vertical  plane  that  passes  to  Ixbul  from  the  sum- 
mit of  Buenavista.  3d.  The  line  determined  by  the  verti- 
cal plane  which  passes  through  the  summit  of  Buenavista, 
and  which  will  be  fixed  astronomically  by  the  Mexican 
Scientific  Commission,  and  the  summit  of  the  mountain  of 
Ixbul,  from  the  point  where  it  intersects  the  previous  line 
up  to  a  point  4  kilometers  distant  from  the  latter  hill. 
4th.  The  parallel  of  latitude  which  passes  through  the 
point  last  specified,  running  in  an  easterly  direction  until 
it  intersects  the  deepest  channel  of  the  river  Usumacinta, 
or  that  of  the  Chixoy,  in  case  the  above  mentioned  parallel 
does  not  intersect  the  first  named  river.  5th.  The  center 
line  of  the  deepest  channel  of  the  river  Usumacinta  or  of 
the  river  Chixoy,  if  that  should  be  the  one  intersected,  and 
following  the  stream  of  the  Usumacinta  until  it  intersects 
the  parallel  situated  25  kilometers  to  the  south  of  Tenosique 
in  Tabasco,  such  line  being  measured  from  the  center  of  the 
Plaza  in  that  town,  6th.  The  parallel  of  latitude  above 
referred  to  as  intersecting  the  deepest  channel  of  the 
Usumacinta,  until  it  intersects  the  meridian  at  a  third 
part  of  the  distance  between  the  centers  of  the  plazas  of 
Tenosique  and  Sacluc,  such  third  part  being  measured  from 
Tenosique.  7th.  This  same  meridian,  from  its  intersection 
with  the  parallel  above  spoken  of  to  its  intersection  with 
the  parallel  of  IT""  49'.  8th.  The  parallel  last  spoken  of 
from  its  intersection  with  the  last  meridian,  in  an  easterly 
direction  as  far  as  required. 

On  the  east,  the  Republic  is  bounded  by  the  Mexican 
Gulf  and  Carribean  Sea,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Bravo 
to  the  peninsula,  of  Yucatan,  giving  a  coast  line  of  2,580 
kilometres.  On  the  west  it  is  bounded  by  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  with  a  coast  line  of  6,250  kilometres.     The  greatest 


256  THE    KICHES    OF   MEXICO 

■width  of  the  Republic  from  east  to  west  is  2,000  kilo- 
metres, measured  on  the  frontier  line  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  least  width,  is  on  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec, 
where  it  measures  210  kilometres.  Its  greatest  length 
from  north  to  southeast,  is  2,800  kilometres. 

Astronomically  speaking,  the  Mexican  Eepublic  is  sit- 
uated between  the  parallels  of  14^  30'  and  32°  42'  of  north 
latitude,  and  between  the  meridians  of  12°  21'  east  and  18° 
west  of  Mexico.  According  to  the  English  system  these 
would  be  86^^46'  8"  and  117°  7'  9"  west  of  the  Observatory  of 
Greenwich.  Its  superficial  area  measures  1,983,332  miri- 
aras,  and  the  adjacent  islands  3,682,  thus  giving  a  total 
area  of  Mexican  territory  of  1,987,014  miriaras,  or  751,700 
square  miles. 

MOUNTAIN  SYSTEM. 

II.  Probably  there  is  not  another  country  in  the  world 
whose  mountain  system  is  found  so  attractive  as  that  of 
Mexico.  This  opinion,  which  was  expressed  by  Baron 
Hmiiboldt,  has  been  afterwards  confirmed  by  many  eminent 
geologists  and  travelers.  Starting  from  Cape  Horn  and 
runninsr  along  the  west  coast  of  South  America,  the  majxni- 
ficeut  Cordillera  of  the  Andes  undergoes  a  depression  on 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  elevating  itself  afresh,  enters 
the  territory  of  the  Republic  by  way  of  Soconusco.  In 
the  State  of  Chiapas,  its  branches  form  narrow  and  pro- 
longed ravines,  valleys  and  table  lands  with  an  elevation 
of  1,200  or  1,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
giving  to  the  country  a  most  picturesque  appearance,  and 
the  aspect  of  a  coast  protected  by  enormous  batteries  of 
granite.  To  the  north  of  Oaxuca,  Morelos  and  Guanajuato, 
this  important  range  acquires  a  great  width  under  the 
name  of  Sierra  Madrc,  and  from  thence  it  forms  a  scries 
of  elevated  mountain  ranges  which  have  been  called  the 
Mexican  Andes,  and   which,   stretching    along   the    entire 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  257 

length  of  the  central  tableland  disappear  in  the  valley  of 
the  Rio  Bravo  del  l^orte.  To  the  north  of  Oaxaca  this 
range  becomes  forked,  one  branch  bearing  to  the  eastward 
in  the  direction  of  Charcas  and  Catorce  until  it  is  lost  in 
the  State  of  Nuevo  Leon,  where  it  forms  extensive  and 
fertile  valleys  as  well  as  a  series  of  canyons,  through  which 
torrents  of  water  descend  during  the  rainy  season.  The 
western  branch,  which  runs  parallel  to  the  eastern,  traverses 
the  State  of  Guerrero,  where  it  undergoes  a  considerable 
depression,  rising  afresh  in  the  State  of  Michoacan.  It 
undergoes  another  depression  in  Jalisco,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Bolaiios,  and  continues  in  a  northerly  direction  by  way 
of  Culiacan  and  Arizpe  in  the  States  of  Sonora  and  Sinaloa, 
from  whence  it  eventuallj''  unites  with  the  Rocky  Mountain 
ranges  in  the  United  States.  A  third  branch,  which  is  not 
so  clearly  defined,  extends  through  Zacatecas  and  Durango, 
continues  through  Parral  in  the  State  of  Chihuahua,  and 
from  thence  is  ultimately  absorbed  in  the  Sierra  Madre  of 
the  western  coast. 

This  immense  system  of  mountains  gives  to  the  country 
an  extremely  varied  aspect  and  is  the  reason  why  all 
the  climates  are  found  within  its  territory,  according  to  the 
diversity  of  altitude. 

Starting  from  either  coast  towards  the  central  table- 
land, the  country  is  found  elevating  itself  in  a  way  that  is 
plainly  visible,  and  at  times  forming  steep  elevations. 
From  the  coasts  of  Veracruz  and  Tamaulipas,  as  well  as 
from  the  plains  of  the  northern  frontier,  enormous  walls 
of  basaltic  rocks  and  granite  peaks  are  seen  to  crown  the 
summits  of  the  ranges,  presenting  great  difficulties  in  those 
parts  where  the  traveler  finds  no  road.  Between  the  spurs 
of  these  mountains  are  found  many  picturesque  and  fertile 
valleys  or  plains,  beautifully  watered  by  meandering 
streams  and  sometimes  by  considerable  rivers,  which, 
duringthe  rainy  season  are  often  heavily  flooded.     The  most 

■17 


2:>8 


THE    IJICHES    «)F    MKXICO 


notable  (»f  these  valleys  which  form,  it  may  l)e  said,  steps 
from  the  sea  upwards,  are  the  following : 


Elevation  above 
sea  level. 

Valley  of  Toluca . . .  2580  m.* 

Canada  de  Istla- 
huaca 2527  " 

PlaiQS  of  the  Apani 

(Tlaxcala) 2480  " 

San  Juan  de  los 
Llanos  CPuebla)...2360  " 

Llanos  del  Cazadero 

(Hidalgo; 2300  " 

Valley  of  Mexico... 2270  " 

Patzcuaro  (Michoa- 
can) 2190  " 

Valley  of  San  Cristo- 
bal L.  C.(Chiapas)  2104  " 

Valley  of  Puebla 2000  to  2150  ra. 

Tulanciugo  (Hidal- 
go)  2089  m. 

Tula 2047  " 

Plains  of  the  Salado 

(San  Luis) '... 2000  to  2300m. 

Irltacuaro  (Michoa- 
can) 2000  m. 

Morelia  (Michoacan)  1950  " 

San    Juan     del    Rio 

(Quoretaro)......1950  " 

Ario 1890  " 

Uajio  (Guanajuato..  1750  to  1790m. 

Tazco  de  Alarcon...l780  m. 

Cuencarac     (l)urau- 

;ro) 1740  " 

Valley  of  Maltrata 
(Veracruz) 1G91  " 

Valley  of  Oaxaca 1550  " 

•   Mftif,  3  fuel  .".J  inches. 


Elevation  above 
sea  level. 

Cuernavaca  (More- 
los) 1525  ra. 

Guadalajara  (Jalis- 
co)  1523  " 

Zapotlan  (Jalisco)..  1425  " 

Chilpancingo  (Guer- 
rero)  1420  " 

Sayula  (Jalisco)  ....  1385  " 

Atenquique  (Jalisco)  1248  " 

Valley     of     Orizaba 

(Veracruz) 1227  " 

Valley  of  El  Maiz.  ..1220  " 

Valley  of  Ameca 
(Jalisco) 1180  " 

Tula  de  Tamaulipas.1171  " 

Valley  of  the  Nazas 

(Durango) 1100  " 

Plains  of  San  Gabriel 
(Morelos) 1008  " 

Iguala  (Guerrero)...  919  " 

Tepic  (City  of) 900  " 

Jorullo 850  «' 

Colima 532  " 

Mexcala  (Rio  de  las 

Balsas) 520  " 

Monterrey       (Nuevo 

Leon) 486  «' 

Ciudad  Victoria  (Ta- 
maulipas) 449" 

Cerralvo  (Nuevo 
Leon) 380  " 

Las  Balsas 123  '« 

Acaponeta 04" 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


259 


The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  mountains  in  the 
Republic,  with  their  elevations  according  to  the  latest  cal- 
culations : 


Popocatepetl  (Mex- 
ico aud  Puebla)  .  .5420  m. 

Citlaltepetl  or  Peak 
of  Orizaba  (Vera- 
cruz  5395  «' 

Ixilacihuatl  (Mexico 
aud  Puebla; 4800  " 

Xinantecatl  or  Peak 
of  Toluca  (Mexico)  4578  " 

Peak  of  Colima  (Jal- 
isco  4?78  " 

Ajusco  (Federal  Dis- 
trict)  4153  '« 

Matlacueyatl  or  Mal- 
intzi (Tlaxcala) ...  4107  " 

Cofre    de  Perote  or 
Nauchampatepetl 
(Veracruz) 4089  <« 

Volcano    of    Colima 

(Jalisco) 3884  " 

Peak    of    Tancitaro 

(Michoacan)  . . 3860  '« 

Llanitos  (Guana- 
juato)  3815  " 


Mount        Pataraban 

(Michoacan) 3750  m. 

Zempoaltpetl  (Oax- 
aca).. 3396  " 

Peak      of      Quinceo 

(Michoacan) 3325  <» 

El  Gigante  (Guana- 
juato)  3250  " 

Las  Navajas  (Hidal- 
go)..-.  3212  " 

Veta  Grande  (Zacat- 

ecas) 2786  " 

Hueitepec  (Chiapas)2705  " 

Jesus  Maria  (Chi- 
huahua)   2511  " 

Monte  Proano  (Za- 
catecas) 2368  " 

Volcano  of  Ceboruco 

(Jalisco) 1525  « 

Volcano    of    Tuxtla 

(Veracruz) 1500  " 

Volcano    of   Jorullo 

(Michoacan) 1800  " 


GEOLOGICAL    FORMATION. 

IV.  The  coasts  lying  along  the  Pacific  and  Gulf  in  the 
Republic  of  Mexico,  are  formed  of  earths  belonging  to  the 
tertiary  period,  interrupted  to  a  small  extent  by  eruptive 
and  sedimentary  rocks;  with  the  exception,  however,  of 
the  coast  of  Lower  California,  lying,  approximately, 
between  the  2^  40'  and  28"  10'  of  north  latitude,  which  is 


260  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

formed  by  earths  of  the  quaternary  period.  Contiguous  to 
the  tertiary  earths,  departing  from  the  coast,  are  to  be 
found  those  of  the  quaternary  ;  these  form  the  chief  por- 
tion of  the  Yucatan  Peninsula,  terminating  at  a  few  min- 
utes from  San  Juan  Bautista,  capital  of  Tabasco,  and  pre- 
cede the  cretaceous  earths  lying  between  the  19°  4'  and  51^ 
50'  of  North  Lat. ;  2°  20'  E.  Long,  and  7°  30'  W.  From  the 
second  to  the  ninth  parallel  of  W.  Long,  the  tertiary  earths 
join  with  the  cretaceous  earths  and  from  there  begins  the 
vast  zone  of  eruptive  rocks,  primitive  and  metamor- 
phised,  comprised  between  the  18°  and  32°  of  North 
Lat.  which  contains  the  so-called  Volcanic  Zone,  of 
which  we  shall  treat  below.  Between  the  2°  and  3°  of  W. 
Long,  and  the  24°  of  North  Lat.  are  also  found  jurastic 
earths  as  are  also  met  with  in  the  State  of  San  Luis  Potosi, 
along  the  tablelands  which  extend  to  the  north  and  east 
of  Mineral  de  Catorce;  these  are  not,  however,  the  only 
determination  of  that  mesozoic  subdivision  which  have  been 
classified,  although  these  lands  do  not  abound  in  the 
Republic. 

From  the  cretaceous  rocks  met  with  on  many  of  the 
mountain  ranges  of  the  interior,  as  well  as  on  the  coasts  of 
the  Mexican  territory,  and  which  are  found  to  be  upheaved 
by  masses  of  porphyry,  Don  Mariano  Barcena  has  concluded 
that  the  original  mountain  ranges  were  formed  towards  the 
end  of  the  Mesozoic  period  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  tertiary. 
The  sedimentary  marine  formations  were  upheaved  by  vol- 
canic action  on  the  masses  of  porphyry,  many  of  which  crown 
the  crest  and  peaks  of  our  mountains.  Enormous  hollows 
were  formed  corresponding  to  the  upheavals,  and  probably 
were  occupied  for  many  centuries  of  the  tertiar}^  period,  by 
extensive  lakes.  At  the  present  day  many  vestiges  of  these 
lakes  can  be  seen  in  different  parts  of  the  Republic,  es- 
pecially in  the  States  of  Oaxaca,  Nuevo  Leon  and  Taman- 
lipas.     During  the  ^Mesozoic  age,    enormous    disturbances 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


261 


took  place,  doubtless  due  to  volcanic  action,  and  extensive 
traces   of  these  can  be  found  in  the  interesting  zone   com- 
prised between  the  18th  and  20th  parallels  of  latitude  (90 
kilometres  apart),   in  which  active  volcanoes  are  found  to 
this  day,  as  well  as  the  greater  part  of  the  extinct  ones. 
The  principal  volcanoes  in  Mexico  are  the  following:  — 
Active.  JoruUo,  whose    formation   dates  from  the   year 
1759,  and  which  now  appears  to  be  in  a  quiescent  condition, 
although  it  still  gives  a  few  belches  of  sulphur  and  smoke; 
Tuxtla   de   San  Martia,   which  had  an  eruption  in  1793  ; 
Popocatepetl,  whose  late  eruption  was  in  1802,  and  Colima 
in  1870.     Besides  the  above,  we  have  the  peak  of  Orizaba, 
which  is   visible  at   a  large   distance  out  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  forming  a  beautiful  spectacle  to  greet  the  traveler. 
Amongst  the  extinct  volcanoes  we  have  the  following:  that 
of  San  Andres  de  Tuxtla  and  Uqueo  in  Michoacan  ;  the  Peak 
of  Toluca   in  Mexico  ;  Ajusco  in   San  Nicolas  ranges  and 
Cerro  Caldera  in  the  Federal  District  and  Puebla  ;  the  Colli 
in  Jalisco  and  the  Cofre  of  Perote  (in  Puebla)  which,  al- 
though   not    formed  like  most  volcanoes,  contains  several 
extinct  craters    on  its  slopes  besides  other  vestiges  of  the 
course    of   lava    streams.     The   Peak   of   Toluca   is   very 
remarkable  from  the  circumstances  that  its  crater  contains 
four  lakes  of  drinking  water,  of  which  the  largest  measures 
400    feet  in  length  by  250  in  width,  with  a  depth  of  ten 
metres. 

The  Azoic  period,  which  left  such  clearly  defined  traces 
in  Canada  and  the  northern  lakes  of  the  United  States, 
does  not  appear  to  have  had  much  effect  on  the  geological 
formation  of  Mexico,  unless  it  be  on  a  few  crystalline  rocks 
to  be  found  in  the  southern  ranges  of  the  Sierra  Madre,* 
and  which  perhaps  may  be  said  to  belong  to  that  period. 
The. same  may  be    claimed   with  respect  to  the  Silurian 


*  Geology,  by  Mariano  Barcena. 


262  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

period,  for,  although  there  are  a  few  sandstones  and  slates 
to  be  found  in  the  western  Sierra  Madre,  and  in  the  District 
of  Altar  in  Sonora,  it  has  not  yet  been  sciciititieally  proved 
that  these  strata  should  be  credited  to  that  particular  period. 
Nor  have  there  as  yet  been  found  any  formations  which 
can  be  described  as  characteristic  of  the  Devonian  period, 
and  the  study  of  the  carboniferous  formation  is,  up  to  the 
present,  very  imperfect.  The  coal  beds  in  the  midland 
States,  according  to  the  author  above  mentioned,  belong  to 
a  more  recent  period  ;  but  this  assertion,  which  appears  well 
founded  with  respect  to  some  of  the  interior  States,  is  not  so 
as  regards  the  coal  beds  of  San  Felipe  and  Piedras  Negras 
in  Coahuila,  San  Marcial  in  Sonora,  besides  those  of 
Chihuahua,  Michoacan,  Veracruz,  Guerrero,  Oaxaca  and 
Chiapas,  of  which  mention  will  be  made  at  length  further  on. 
TheTriasic  period  in  the  Mesozoic  age,  left  remarkable  im- 
pressions in  the  form  of  a  dark  or  gray  colored  clay  slate 
which  contains  particles  of  mica  and  which  has  been  discov- 
ered in  the  district  of  Acatlan  in  the  State  of  Puebla.  In 
"  Noria  do  los  Angeles,"  in  the  State  of  Zacatecas,  and  in 
other  parts,  ferrasic  amonites  have  been  discovered  and  com- 
pact fcetid  lime  stone,  with  a  gray,  smoky  color,  which  have 
been  carefully  studied  by  the  Mexican  geologist,  Don 
Mariano  Biircena.  These  contain  hypurites,  merineas  and 
radiolites  in  abundance.  In  regular  stratification  through- 
out these  masses  have  been  found  limestone,  slate,  clay, 
slates  and  beds  of  "  i)iedra  lidia."  No  traces  can  be  met 
with  of  the  glacial  i)eri()d  or  of  the  Cenozoic  age,  and  the 
largo  polished  blocks  which  have  been  found  liy  General 
Riva  Palacio  in  the  neighborhood  of  Acapulco  appear  most 
likely  to  belong  to  the  Champluin  or  Diluvial  j^eriod.  To 
the  same  period  quite  i)robably  appertain  the  alluvial  and 
lacustrine  valleys,  which  are  so  abundantly  found  within 
the  Kepublic. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  263 


GEOLOGICAL    COMMISSION    OF    MEXICO. 

It  cannot  be  said  without  exaggeration  that  profound 
geological  studies  have  been  carried  to  a  successful  termi- 
nation in  Mexico,  nor,  much  less  with  that  continuity  of 
purpose  which  they  demand ;  it  may  be  truthfully  stated, 
however,  that  meritorious  efforts  have  been  made   in  this 

direction. 

The  Geological  Commission,  initiated  by  the  Department 

of  Colonization,  Industry  and  Commerce  on  April  26th,  1886, 

and  which  was  created  by  the  decree  of  December  18th, 

1888,  has  made  unheard  of  efforts  in  the  accomplishment 

of  its  important  task,  as  the  success  of  its  labors  abundantly 

attest.     In  1889  it  presented  at  the  Universal  Exposition 

of  Paris  a  "Geological  Map  of  the  Republic,"  containing 

fifty  per  cent  of  the  superfice  of  the  country,  and  a  "  Mining 

Chart  of  the  Republic,"  which  works  were  awarded  a  gold 

medal.       In    1890   it    submitted   the    same   works   to   the 

"  Mineral  Metallurgical  Exposition  "  of  London,  and,  with 

the  same  good  fortune,  these  were   also   awarded   a   gold 

medal.     At  the  International  Geological  Congress,  which 

met  in   Washington,  in  1891,  it  exhibited  the  Geological 

Map  of  the  Republic  augmented  with  new-  determinations, 

and  containing  a  study  of  seventy  per  cent  of  the  superfice 

of  the  country.     To  this  work  was  added  the  paleontologic 

and  petrographic  collections  which  served  the  purpose  of 

determining  and  classifying  the  formations.     It  is  proposed 

to    exhibit  at   the  Columbian  Exposition    in  Chicago,  this 

present  year,    the  geological  map  in  question,  containing 

seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  superfice  of  the  country,  the 

paleontologicaland  petrographical  collections  augmented, 

and  a  mining  chart  of  the  Mexican  Republic. 

The  personnel  of  this  organization  is  as  follows :  Professor 


264  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

Antonio  del  Castillo,  director ;  Jose  S.  Aguilera,  paleontol- 
ogist; Ezequiel  Ordonez,  petrographisl ;  Carlos  Sapper, 
geologist ;  Ramon  Felix  Buelna,  mining  geologist;  Luis  G. 
Becerril,  draughtsman;  Natalio  Diaz,  clerk  ;  Fidencio  Rod- 
riguez, engraver. 

At  the  present  writing  (April,  1893),  Mr.  Sapper  is 
devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  the  Southern  States,  and 
Mr.  Buelna  will  shortly  make  a  tour  of  exploration  of  those 
regions  in  some  of  the  Northern  States  as  yet  unexplored. 
As  soon  as  the  general  formations  are  determined,  the 
commission  will  direct  its  energies  to  the  study  of  the 
details  of  the  metalliferous  croppings  of  "Agricultural 
Geology,"  and  complete  a  few  other  important  geological 
studies,  in  diverse  localities  of  the  country.  An  appropri- 
ation of  $30,000.00  per  annum  has  been  assigned  to  the  use 
of  this  commission. 


NATURAL   WONDERS. 

V.  Amongst  the  wonders  of  nature  which  are  to  be  found 
in  Mexico,  worthy  of  study  by  the  traveler  and  geologist,  we 
can  mention  the  Barranca  de  las  Tres  Penas  with  its  mag- 
nificent scenery,  the  falls  of  Juanacatlan^  in  the  State  of 
Jalisco,  called  by  some  travelers  the  Mexican  Niagara, 
with  a  width  of  146  metres  and  a  fall  of  17  metres,  the 
falls  of  Regla  formed  by  the  waters  of  the  River  Huazca- 
zaloya,  which  fall  into  an  amphitheater  formed  of  magnifi- 
cent basaltic  columns  34  metres  high,  and  showing  an  extent 
of  234  metres  of  cliff  full  of  these  wonderful  natural 
formations.  The  grotto  of  CacaJmamilpa  in  the  State  of 
Guerrero,  is  widely  known,  and  of  this  grotto  it  has  been 
said  that  "  a  painter  can  draw  all  the  fanciful  tigures  that 
his  imagination  can  inspire,  and  assure  people  that  he  has 


=3. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  265 

copied  them  from  the  interior  of  the  Cave  of  Cacahuamilpa, 
without  any  fear  of  contradiction."  * 

The  ravine  in  which  this  grotto  is  found  has  a  length  of 
about  4  kilometres. — The  geyser  of  San  Andres  in  Michoa- 
can,  has  been  thus  described  by  Saussure:  *' In  front  of 
the  spectator  rises  a  white  slope  which  appears  to  be  covered 
with  porcelain;  on  the  summit  is  found  a  well  with  a 
diameter  of  two  meters  from  which  a  stream  of  vapor 
issues  with  a  horrible  hissing  sound,  and  rises  to  a  consid- 
erable elevation ;  a  wave  of  boiling  water  overflows  from  the 
opening  and  runs  to  the  bottom  of  the  valley  along  numerous 
gutters,  leaving  behind  it  a  lining  of  silica,  making  the  gut- 
ters appear  to  be  lined  with  the  finest  china.  The  same  forest 
contains  lakes  of  boiling  water,  solfataras  and  fumarolas. 

In  the  suburbs  of  Puebla,  adjacent  to  the  ranch  known  as 
La  Posada,  the  eminent  Mexican  geologist.  Professor  An- 
tonio del  Castillo,  discovered  in  1881  a  geyser  of  tophus 
limestone  which  sends  forth  at  intermittent  periods  sul- 
phidric  gas,  and  this  is  known  in  that  vicinity  by  the  in- 
digenous title  of  Cuescomate. 

The  Mexican  Geological  Commission  has  just  published 
a  view  taken  from  the  mouth  of  the  Geyser,  from  south  to 
north,  and  a  section  from  northwest  to  southeast. 

It  would  require  a  voluminous  and  special  work  to  give 
an  account  of  all  the  natural  wonders  that  are  so  abundantly 
found  throughout  the  Mexican  territory. 


HYDROGRAPHIC    SYSTEM. 

VI.  The    following    table    shows    the    names    of    the 
principal    rivers    in    Mexico,    the    States    in   which   they 


*  Francisco  Bulnes  —  Civil  Engineer. 


266 


THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 


are  found,  their  length  in  leagues  and  the  seas  they  flow 
into. 

States  through  which  Length  in 

Rivers.  they  flow.  leagues.  Discharge. 

Bravo Chihuahua,    Coahuila  and   Tam-  .... 

aulipas 548  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Panuco Tamaulipa.s 120                  " 

Alvarado Veracruz 87                 " 

Coatzacoalcos.        "          87                 " 

Grijalva Chiapas  and  Tabasco 132                '* 

Usuraacinta...                  "                    131                 " 

Yaqui Sonera 1 50  Gulf  of  California. 

Mayo "      74                " 

Ures "      100                 " 

Fuerte Between  Sonora  and  Sinaloa 130                 " 

Culiacan Sinaloa 60                 " 

Sinaloa "      100                 " 

Balsas Guerrero,  Michoacan  &  Mexico..  104  Pacific  Ocean. 

Mezquital Durango  and   Jalisco 115                 " 

Nazas Durango 81  Lake  of  Parras. 

Ameca Jalisco Pacific  Ocean. 

Lerma  or Mexico,  Michoacan 

Tololollan    ...  Guanajuato  and    Jalisco 208                 " 


The  hikes  of  the  Republic  can  be  considered  as  divided 
under  two  heads;  one  comprised  in  the  country  included 
between  19  and  21°  of  N.  Latitude  and  the  other  situated 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  country.  The  names  of  the 
principal  lakes  are  as  follows:  — 

In  Coahuila,  Tlahualilo  or  Caiman,  El  Mueito  and  Par- 
ras. In  Tamaulipas,  the  Laguua  Madre.  In  Chihuahua, 
the  lakes  of  Guzman,  El  Tajo,  Santa  Maria,  Patos,  Castillo, 
and  Encinillas.  In  Campeche,  the  Laguna  de  Tcrminos. 
Between  Jalisco  and  Michoacan,  Chapala.  In  Michoacan, 
Cuitzeo  and  Piitzcuaro.  In  Mexico  :  Chalco,  Xochimilco, 
Lerma,  Zumpango,  Xaltocan,  Texcoco  and  San  Cristobal. 
In  Hidalgo,  Metztitlan.  In  Veracruz,  Taniahua.  On 
the  Isthmus  of  Tchuantepec,  the  Superior  Lake  and  the 
Inferior  Liike.     In  Nuevo  Leon:    San  Francisco,  Co-nchas 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  267 

and  others  of  salt  water.  In  Tabasco,  Ramon  and  I.-riuate. 
In  Chiapas  :  Tepancuapan  with  a  length  of  24  kilometres, 
and  the  lake  of  Islotes.  In  Durango,  Guatimape.  In 
Guanajuato:  Juriria,  measuring  17  kilometres  in  length 
and  7  in  width. 

The  following  table  has  been  published  giving  the  tem- 
perature of  some  of  the  different  waters  of  the  country. 

Springs  of  hard  -water  in  Mexico  City 22"-  50 

Hard  water  in  the  reservoir  at  Salto  del  Agua 17  60 

Spring  of  soft  water  in  the  Desierto !•  00 

Soft  water  in  reservoirs  within  the  City 13  98 

Artesian  well  in  the  Preparatory  School 15  06 

Artesian  well  in  the  Hospital  of  San  Lucas 17  30 

Artesian  well  in  Bucareli  Avenue 21  50 

Artesian  well  in  the  Mint 25  50 

Large  reservoir  in  Chapultepec 21  47 

Common  well  in  the  National  Palace 15  90 

Settling  tank  in  Guadalajara 21  OU 

AVater  in  the  well  in  Guadalupe.. 21  50 

Aragon  Baths  —  Mexico 24  50 

Baths  at  the  Station  in  Guadalupe 22  80 

Water  of  the  Pefion  Baths 44  50 

Baths  at  Atotonilco  —  Hidalgo <j''  50 

Sulphur  water  at  Santiago  — Puebla.. 28  00 

Baths  at  Tenguedo  —  Hidalgo . . ; -^6  20 

Baths  at  Zalatitan,  near  Guadalajara 41  00 

Laja  Spring,  near  Ahualulco— Jalisco 93  00 


CLIMATE. 

Temperature  and  Barometric  Pressure. 

VII.  The  climate  of  Mexico  has  not  as  yet  been  the 
object  of  serious  study,  but  of  the  results  of  such  observa- 
tions as  made,  the  most  notable  is  that  published  in  the 
City  of  Mexico  in  1879,  and  which  is  entitled  "Data  for 
the  Study  of  the  Climate  of  Mexico,"  by  Dr.  Domingo 
Orvafianos.  Most  of  the  following  information  has  been 
taken  from  this  excellent  work  and   from  another  by  the 


268  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

same  author,  called  "  Essay  on  the  Medical  and  Climatolo- 
gical  Geography  of  the  Mexican  Republic."  This  book 
was  compiled  from  official  data  which  had  been  collected 
from  the  Department  of  Fomentation,  and  was  published  by 
that  Department  in  the  year  1888,  whilst  General  Carlos 
Pacheco  administered  it,  with  such  credit  to  himself  and 
his  country. 

Few  countries  can  be  compared  with  Mexico  in  regard  to 
variety  of  climate.  During  a  voyage  of  a  few  hours  b}' 
rail,  the  thermometer  will  vary  from  20'  to  27^  centigrade 
in  the  summer,  and  the  same  journey  made  in  winter  will 
show  a  variation  of  from  18^  to  30^ ;  and  the  light  clothes 
which  the  immigrant  can  hardly  bear  when  he  lauds  in  Vera- 
cruz, have  to  be  changed  on  arrival  in  Mexico  for  a  much 
heavier  class,  the  traveler  feeling  as  cold  in  summer  as  he 
would  in  a  moderate  winter  elsewhere. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  temperature  rises  in  a  steady 
and  continuous  manner  from  the  coast  to  the  Central  table- 
land, as  it  often  happens  in  the  Pacific  and  Southern  States, 
where  the  cold  country  is  only  a  few  hours  distant  from 
the  coast  and  the  hot  country  is  situated  at  a  much  larger 
distance  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  The  different 
elevations  found  in  Mexico  have  led  to  the  division  of  the 
climate  into  three  classes:  hot,  temperate  and  cold,  for 
which  reason  the  lands  situated  at  an  elevation  of  less  than 
1,000  meters  above  the  sea,  arc  called  "  Tierra  Caliente," 
or  hot  country.  These  districts  produce  all  kinds  of 
tropical  fruits  and  products,  such  us  the  cocoa,  the  mango, 
the  banana,  etc.  Between  the  elevations  of  1,000  and 
2,000  metres  we  have  the  "Tierra  Teinplada,"  or  tem- 
perate zone,  which  is  that  to  which  immigrants  ought  to 
direct  their  steps,  both  because  it  is  free  from  all  risk  of 
yellow  fever,  which  does  not  propagate  at  more  than 
700  metres  elevation,  and  because  it  is  free  from  the 
excessive    heat   of  the  sea   and  coast  and  the  insupportable 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  269 

plague  of  insects  which  there  abound.  The  part  of  the 
country  called  "  Tierra  Fria,"  or  cold  country,  is  under- 
stood to  be  all  that  is  situated  at  an  elevation  of  more  than 
2,000  meters  above  the  sea,  and  where  severe  cold  is 
sometimes  felt  in  winter  time.  In  these  parts  the  ther- 
mometer occasionally  shows  a  cold  of  40  or  50"^  below  zero, 
but  these  cases  are  very  rare.  Even  in  the  coldest  parts  of 
Mexico,  which  are  undoubtedly  found  in  the  mountains  of 
Chihuahua,  hard  winters  are  very  unfrequent,  and  on  the 
central  tableland  the  thermometer  is  very  seldom  found 
descendino;  to  zero,  even  in  elevated  vallevs  like  that  of 
Toluca. 

The  latitude  and  longitude  have  very  little  influence  on 
the  climate  of  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  which  is 
distributed,  partly  in  the  torrid  and  partly  in  the  temperate 
zone.  To  make  comparisons  of  temperature  would  requu-e 
the  examination  of  the  thermometrical  data  obtained  in 
various  places  situated  at  the  same  altitude  but  in  different 
latitudes. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  three  zones  above  spoken 
of  is  as  follows: 

Hot  country  (according  to  situation) 23°  to  25° 

Temperate  country  Caccording  to  situation) 17°  to  19° 

Cold  country  (according  to  situation) 13°  to  17° 

As  a  general  rule,  the  climate  of  Mexico  can  be  consid- 
ered as  temperate. 

According  to  Dr.  Orvaiianos  the  mean  difference  between 
the  average  temperature  of  the  hottest  and  coldest  months, 
}s  greater  in  the  hot  countiy,  less  in  the  temperate  zone 
and  very  slight  in  the  cold  country.  In  the  first,  this 
difference  amounts  to  8^  or  10°;  in  the  second,  it  varies 
between  6°  and  10°  and  in  the  third  between  5°  and  8°. 
The  average  of  the  highest  temperatures  which  are  observed 
in  the  course  of  a  year  (absolute  maximum)  as  well  as  in 


270  THK    KICHKS    OF    MEXICO 

the  lowest  temperatures  (absolute  minimum)  is  as  follows: 
In  the  hot  country  the  first  is  28"  to  30°  and  the  second  16"  to 
22°;  in  the  temperate  zone,  the  first  is  23''  to  33"  and  in  the 
second  0.5'  to  12",  whilst  in  the  cold  country  the  first  is  19" 
to  33"  and  the  second  0.5'  to  9". 

The  difference  between  the  absolute  maximum  and  mini- 
mum is  less  in  the  hot  country,  increases  in  the  temperate, 
and  continues  that  increase,  although  very  slightly,  in  the 
cold.  At  the  same  time  it  undergoes  a  notable  diminution 
in  those  places  which  are  situated  above  the  level  of  2,300 
meters. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  understood  that  the  climate 
of  the  Republic  can  be  classified  as  very  equable  in  propor- 
tion to  the  elevation.  At  the  same  time  it  becomes  more 
variable  in  proportion  to  the  increased  elevation.  But  that 
variation  is  greatly  diminished  in  those  localities  which  are 
situated  above  the  average  elevation  of  the  central  tableland. 

The  difierent  seasons  of  the  year  are  hardly  to  be  felt  in 
the  inter-tropical  regions,  but  they  are  more  marked  in 
those  which  are  situated  at  the  higher  elevations.  In  those 
parts  of  the  country  which  are  comjirehended  in  the  torrid 
zone,  the  different  seasons  are  only  known  as  dry  and  wet. 
The  dry  season  extends  from  November  to  May,  during 
which  time  rains  are  very  scarce,  whil.^it  the  wet  season 
begins  in  June  and  terminates  in  October,  during  which 
time  the  rains  are  very  abundant.  In  some  States,  such  as 
Tabasco,  the  rainy  season  is  at  times  jn-olonged  to  eight  ov 
nine  months,  whilst  in  others,  such  as  Yucatan,  this  season 
is  generally  found  to  be  almost  dry. 

The  mean  barometric  pressure  at  0"  in  the  seventeen 
principal  meteorological  stations  establishod  in  the  Repub- 
lic, is  as  follows:  Aguascalientes,  ()05.()8  ;  Amecameca 
(Mexico),  563.48;  Guadalajara  (Jalisco),  638.83;  Guana- 
juato, 605.91;  Huejutla  (Hidalgo),  763.82;  Leon  (Guana- 
juato),    618.70;     Mazatliin     (Siualoa),     760.87;      Mexico 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIOXS.  271 

(Capital),  580.46;  Pabelloa  (Aguascalientes),  607.76; 
Puebla  (State  College),  593.49;  Puebla  (Catholic College), 
094.02  ;  San  Luis  Potosi,  613.41;  Toluca,  568.06  ;  Tuxpan 
(Veracruz),  762.58  ;  Veracruz,  760.00  ;  Zacatecas,  573.45; 

Monterey,  718.07. 

The  following  table  shows  the  elevation,  mean  tempera- 
ture and  barometric  pressure  in  the  principal  cities  of  the 
Republic  : 

CITIES. 


Hermosillo 

Culiacan 

Guadalajara 

Colima 

Morelia 

Chilpancingo 

Oaxaca 

San  Cristobal  Las  Casas. 

Merida 

Campeche 

San  Juan  Bautista 

Jalapa . '. 

Ciudad  Victoria 

Chihuahua 

Saltillo 

Monterrey 

Durango 

Zacatecas    

San  Luis  Potosi 

Aguascalientes 

Guanajuato. 

Queretaro 

Pachuca 

Toluca 

Tlaxcala 

Puebla 

Cuernavaca  

Mexico 

La  Paz 

Tepic 


Eieration 
meters. 

Mean        ] 
tempera- 
ture. 

ilean  baromet- 
ric pressure  in 
millimeters. 

210 

40 

1566 

486 

1950 

19^83 
26=11 
16^50 

636.40 
717.75 
615.76 

1193 
1546 

21^00 
19°90 

G36.39 

2104 
8 

26=^16 

763.07 

Sea  level 

26-00 
26^03 

761.72 

1405 

449 



1412 

1627 
495 

2P86 

718.07 

2100 
2442 
1890 
1861 
2083 
1490 

15°80 
17°25 
17°80 
18=80 
17=60 

572.97 
614.16 
604.75 
601.37 
615.36 

2450 
2625 

12°60 

556.03 

2252 

15°86 
21=09 

15=72 

24=00 



2162 
1542 
2260 

593.81 
636.67 
586.80 

Sea  level 
953 

676.75 

272  THE    EICHES    OF   MEXICO 


HUmDITY. 

In  the  hot  countiy,  the  mean  humidity  varies  from  85.04 
to  77  huudredths,  iu  the  temperate  zone  it  runs  from  77 
to  60  hundredths  and  from  67.05  to  48.04  in  the  cold 
country. 

According  to  the  data  collected  up  to  the  present  time, 
it  appears  that  the  atmospheric  humidity  is  rather  greater 
on  the  Gulf  coast  than  on  the  Pacitic  coast,  as  the  first 
almost  amounts  to  85  hundredths,  whilst  the  second  usually 
remains  below  80  hundredths. 

It  happens  at  times,  that  on  account  of  the  prevailing 
winds,  the  average  of  humidity  does  not  obey  the  general 
laws,  and  that  is  what  occm-s  in  the  towns  of  Mazatlan  and 
Guadalajara  in  which  we  have  an  average  humidity  of  77 
hundredths,  although  Mazatlan  is  situated  on  the  sea  level  and 
Guadalajara  at  an  elevation  of  1,567  meters,  besides  being 
70  leagues  from  the  coast. 

With  respect  to  humidity,  the  climate  of  Mexico  can  be 
classified  as  follows: 

The  hot  country,  humid. 

The  temperate  zone,  moderately  humid  and  the  cold 
country  very  dry. 

RAINS. 

With  regard  to  rains,  the  following  facts  have  been 
noticed : 

1st.  It  rains  more  or  less  throughout  the  whole  extension 
of  the  Ilepublic. 

2d.  The  rains  are  more  plentiful  on  the  Gulf  coast  than 
on  the  Pacific  coast. 

3d.  That  rains  are  abundant  to  the  south  of  the  Gulfs  of 
Mexico,  California  and  Tehuantepec. 

4th.  That  the  rains  are  moderate  in  the  greater  parts  of 
the  central  and  northern  States. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


273 


5th.  That  in  the  Gulf  States,  such  as  Veracruz  and 
Tabasco,  and  the  western  part  of  Campeche,  the  rains  are 
very  abundant,  whilst  they  are  moderate  in  Yucatan  and  the 
ports  of  Tamaulipas. 

6th.  With  respect  to  the  Pacific  coast  States,  the  follow- 
mcr  conclusions  have  been  arrived  at:  that  the  rains  are 
moderate  in  those  districts  situated  to  the  south  of  the  State 
of  Sinaloa,  as  well  as  in  the  larger  proportion  of  the  dis- 
tricts in  the  States  of  Jalisco,  Michoacan,  Guerrero,  Oaxaca, 
and  the  territory  of  Tepic,  whilst  they  are  abundant  in  all 
the  northern  and  central  parts  of  Sinaloa  as  well  as  in  the 
greater  part  of  Chiapas. 

The  following  table  has  been  officially  published,  show- 
ing  the  annual  rainfall  in  different  parts  of  the  Eepublic: 


Aguascalientes 591.0 

Campecne 833.2 

Colima 1052.9 

Cordoba  (Veracruz) 2798.5 

Cuernavaca  (Morelos) 1105 .4 

Guadalajara  (Jalisco) 863.7 

Guadalcazar  (San  Luis  Po- 

tosi) 1194.8 

Guanajuato 859.5 

Guaymas  (Sonora) 711.2 

Huehuetoca  (Mexico) 2282.9 

Huejutla  (Hidalgo) 466.1 

Ixtacomitan  (Chiapas) 4618.5 

Lagos  (Jalisco) 866.6 

Leon  (Guanajuato)    728.3 

Llano  Grande  (Guerrero)  . . .  865.9 
Matamoros    (Tamaulipas)...  815.4 

Mazatlan    (Sinaloa) 822.2 

Merida  (Yucatan) 913.0 

Mexico     (Federal    District) 

Central  Observatory 607.4 

Mexico  (Federal  Dist.)  Pre- 
paratory Nat.  School 701.6 

Mirador    (Farm)   Veracruz.. 2130. 5 


Monterrey  (Nuevo  Leon)...  744.0 

Morelia  (Michoacan) 648.4 

Oaxaca 715.3 

Orizaba  (Veracruz) 2510.0 

Pabellon      (Farm)      Aguas- 
calientes  c 506.6 

Patzcuaro  (Michoacan) 1158.6 

Pinos  (Zacatecas) 1007.0 

Puebla  (Catholic  College)..  1319. 5 

Puebla  (State  College) 932.9 

Queretaro 594.2 

Saltillo  (Coahuila) 554.1 

San  Juan    del  Rio    (Quere- 
taro)    500.6 

San  Luis  Potosi 393.4 

San  Nicolas  Buenavista  (F.    584.7 
D.) 

Tezuitlan  (Pueblo) 1530.9 

Tinaja  (San  Luis  Potosi)....   766.0 

Tlacotalpam  (Veracruz) 1823.7 

Toluca  (Mexico) 678.0 

Tuxpan  (Veracruz) 1532.0 

Veracruz 1319. 1 

Zacatecas 819.1 


18 


274  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 


WINDS. 

Very  little  is  known  with  regard  to  the  winds  of  this 
Kopublic,  either  with  respect  to  their  prevalent  direc- 
tion, or  to  their  velocity.  With  respect  to  their  tem- 
I)erature,  and  deojree  of  humidity,  a  little  information  has 
been  obtained,  but  only  as  regards  the  valley  of  Mexico. 

The  prevailing  directions  of  the  wind  are  as  follows  in 
the  localities  which  are  shown  : 

Guadalajara W. 

Guanajuato S.  W. 

Leon N.  N.  E. 

Mazatlan N.  E.  &  N.  W. 

Mexico ,  N.  W. 

Pabellon  (Aguas  Calientes) W.  S.  W. 

Puebla  (State  College) N.  E. 

Puebla  (Catholic  College) S. 

Sau  Luis  PotosI E. 

Zacatecas S.  E. 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  prevailing 
winds  in  most  of  these  localities  are  from  a  westerly 
direction,  those  from  the  north  and  south  being  less  fre- 
quent, whilst  those  from  the  east  are  very  rare. 

With  respect  to  the  velocity  of  the  wiuds  we  have  the 
data  compiled  in  fourteen  meteorological  stations,  and  from 
these  we  can  deduce  that  the  average  velocity  is  about 
moderate  in  Zacatecas ;  very  moderate  in  Amecameca, 
Guadalajara,  Guanajuato,  Mazatlan,  Pabollou  (Aguascal- 
iciites),  Puebla,  (the  two  observatories),  San  Luis  Potosi, 
and  Tuxpan,  and  almost  insensible  in  Aguascalientes, 
Leon,  (Guanajuato),  Mexico,  (Central  Observatory)  and 
Toluca. 

With  respect  to  the  humidity  of  the  different  winds  in 
the  valley  of  Mexico,  they   can  be  placed  as  follows:    1st, 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


275 


N.  W.  ;  2d,  W.  ;  3d,  S.  W.  and  N.  ;  4Lb,  S.  ;  5th,  S.  E.; 
6th,  E.,  and  7th,  N.  E. 

With  respect  to  temperature  the  whids  come  in  the  fol- 
lowing order,  beginning  with  the  coolest :  1st,  N.  W.  ;  2d, 
W.  ;  3d,  N. ;  4th,  S.  W. ;  5th,  S.  and  N.  E. ;  6th,  E. ;  and 
7th,  S.  E.;* 

We  now  present  a  general  summary  of  the  meteorolog- 
ical observations  taken  in  different  parts  of  the  Mexican 
Republic,  only  noting  that  the  observations  taken  in  Mexico 
and  Puebla  include  the  last  eleven  years,  whilst  the  other 
localities  have  only  reported  observations  for  ten  years. 


*  These  data  have  been   extracted  from  "The  Essays  on  Climato- 
logical  and  Medical  Geography,"  of  which  we  have  spoken  above. 


DRAINING  THE   VALLEY   OF   MEXICO. 

Mex.  A.  T.  D.  Los  Sigloa.  Notchistongo. 


276 


THE   RICHES   GF   MEXICO 


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AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS. 


277 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE  STATES. 

I.  Up  to  this  point  we  have  considered  the  territory  of 
the  Republic  as  a  whole,  making  but  little  mention  of  its 
political  division ;  we  now  propose  to  enter  into  details  on 
this  subject. 

The  United  Mexican  States,  embracing  27  States,  2  Ter- 
ritories, 1  Federal  District  and  the  islands  adjacent  in  both 
seas. 

The  following  is  the  political  division : 


CENTRAL   STATES. 


STATES. 


Dis- 
tricts. 


Divi- 
sions. 


Can- 
tons. 

De- 
part- 
ments. 

CAPITALS 


Distrito  Federal. 
Aguascalientes... 
S.  Luis  Potosi... 

Guanajuato 

Queretaro  

Hldalso 

Mexico 

Morelos 

TIaxcala  

Puebla 

Duraugo 

Zacatecas < 


Mexico. 

Aguascalientes. 

S.  Luis  Potosi. 

Guanajuato. 

Quer^taro. 

Pachuca. 

Toluca. 

Cuernavaca. 

TIaxcala. 

Puebla. 

Durango. 

Zacatecas. 


27« 


TUE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 


NORTHERN   STATES. 


STATES. 


Dis- 

Divi- 

Can- 

De- 

tricts. 

sions. 

tons. 

part- 
ments. 

CAPITALS. 


Sonora 

Chihuahua  . 
Coahuila. . . 
Nuevo  Leon 


9 
10 

5 
10 

Hermosillo. 
Chihuahua. 
Saltillo. 
Monterrey. 


GULF    STATES. 


Tamaulipas. 
Veracruz.  .. 
Tabasco.  . . 
Campeche. . 
Yucatan  . . . 


14 


16 


18 


C.  Victoria. 

Ijalapa. 

|S.  Juan  Btta. 

Campeche. 

Merida. 


PACIFIC    STATES. 


Michoacan. 

Colinia 

Guerrero . . 
Jali.sco 


Sinaloa  

Chiapas 

Oaxaca. 

Territory  of  Tepic. 
Lower  California... 


Totales 


10 

2(; 

2 
177 


C 
1 

118 


34 


11 


50 


Morelia. 

Colima. 

Chilpancin<io. 

Guadalajara. 

Culiaciin. 

S.  Cristobal  L. 

Oaxaca. 

Tepic. 

La  Paz. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


^79 


TERRITORIAL   EXTENSION. 

We  have  here  the  territorial  •xtension  of  the  States  and 
Territories  of  the  Republic. 


CENTRAL   STATES. 

MIRIARAS. 

Distrito  Federal 1,200 

Aguas  Calientes 7,G44 

Durango 98,470 

Guanajuato 29,458 

Hidalgo 23,101 

Mexico 23,957 

Morelos 7^  134 

Puebla 31,616 

Queretaro 9,215 

S.  Luis  Potosi 65,580 

Tlaxcala 4  132 

Zacatecas 64, 138 

NORTHERN    STATES. 

Chihuahua 227,468 

Coahuila 164,690 

Nuevo  Leon 61  ng 

Sonora , 199,224 

GULF    STATES. 

Campeche 46,855 

Tabasco 26,094 

Tamaulipas 83,234 

Veracruz 75.651 

Yucatan 91,201 

PACIFIC   STATES. 

Lower  California 161 ,109 

Colima 5^887 

Chiapas 70,524 

Guerrero 64,756 

Jalisco 82,503 

Michoaciin 59,261 

Oaxaca 91,664 

Sinaloa  87,231 

Tepic 29,21 1 

Total 1,983,382 


280  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 


ISLANDS. 

The  adjacent  Islands  which  make  up  the  whole  of  the 
Territory  of  the  Republic,  are  as  follows: 

Guadalupe  (Pacific  Ocean) 208 

Cedros              "            «'       343 

Sta.Margarita "            "           128 

Creciente          "           "           52 

Eevillagigedo  "           "           41 

Tres  Marias     "            "           53 

Tibnron                (Gulf  of  California 96 

Angel  de  la  Guarda    "               "        636 

Montague                    "               "        42 

SanEsteban                "               "        38 

San  Lorenzo                "                "         22 

SanJos6                       "               "         182 

.  Cerralvo                       "               "         152 

Santa  Catalina            "               "        38 

Monserrate                 "               "        25 

Carmen                         "                "         144 

San  Marcos                  "                "        ...  28 

Partida                         "                "         24 

Cozumel                  (Gulf  of  M($xico) 406 

Mujeres                        "              "        4 

Espiritu  Santo             "               "         68 

Other  small  islands 82 

Total 3,G81 


ASTRONOMICAL  POSITION  OF  THE  CAPITALS. 

The  latest  works  of  the  Department  of  Chartography, 
subordinate  to  the  Department  of  Colonization,  Industry 
and  Commerce,  undertaken  witii  a  view  of  determining  the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


281 


astronomical  position  of  the   Capitals  of  tlie   States,  show 
the  following  results: 


Sonora 

Chihuahua 

Coahuila 

Nuevo  Leon  

Tamaulipas  

Sinaloa 

Durango 

Zacatecas 

Aguascalientes..  • 
S.  Luis  Potosi  . . . 

Jalisco  

Colima 

Mlchoacan  

Guanajuato  

Quer6taro 

Hidalgo 

Veracruz 

Mexico 

Puebla 

Tlaxcala  

Morelos 

Guerrero 

Oaxaca 

Tabasco  

Chiapas 

Yucatan 

Campeche 

Distrito  Federal . 

Lower  California. 

do 


CAPITALS.        Latitude,  N.        Longitude 


Hermosillo 

Chihuahua 

Saltillo 

Monterrey 

Ciudad  Victoria 

Culiacan 

Durango 

Zacatecas  

Aguascalientes. 
S.  Luis  Potosi .. 
Guadalajara  — 

Colima 

Morelia • 

Guanajuato... 

Queretaro 

Pachuca 

Jalapa 

Toluca 

Puebla 

Tlaxcala 

Cuernavaca. .. • 
Chilpancingo  .  • 

Oaxaca 

S.  Juan  Bautista 
S.  Cristobal,  L.C 

Merida 

Campeche 

Mexico 

Ensenada  

La  Paz 


Territorio  de  Tepic. . . .  Tepic 


29^  4' 

28  38 

25  25 

25  40 

23  42 

24  48 
24  1 
22  46 

21  53 

22  9 

20  40 
19  14 

19  42 

21  0 

20  35 
20  7 
19  31 
19  27 
19  2 

19  19 

18  65 
17  33 
17  3 
17  59 
16  44 

20  55 

19  49 
19  26 
31  61 
29  16 

21  30 


37" 

23 

26 

15 

54 

4 
29 
35 

1 
10 
45 
21 
13 
58 
42 
35 
33 
28 
30 

4 

2 
10 
28 
37 
10 
40 
50 

5 
50 
18 
47 


O 


E. 


O. 


47' 55' 
56  23 
48  24 
10  7 
1  1 
18  31 

31  55 
26  22 

9  56 
50  20 

12  31 
35  47 

3  29 

7  8 

15  20 

23  19 

13  12  " 

32  47  O. 
56  6  E. 
53  45  " 

6  42  O. 
22  3  E. 
25  21  " 

6  28 
59  48 

24  30 

33  30 
0  0 

31  14 
33  44 
43  15 


E. 


aprox. 
aprox. 


Note. — The  meridian  line  of  reference  used  to  determine  the  de- 
grees of  longitude  is  one  which  passes  tlirough  the  east  tower  of  the 
Cathedral  in  the  City  of  Mexico. 


282  THE    KICHES    OF   MEXICO 


CHAPTER  III. 

POPULATION  AND  RACES. 
BEGINNING    OF    MEXICAN    CIVILIZATION. 

I.  The  population  and  even  the  civilization  of  the  Mexi- 
can Republic,  does  not  date,  as  is  well  known,  from  the 
discovery  of  America.  The  European  conquest  did  no 
more  than  modify  said  civilization  and  purify  it  from 
savage  customs  by  introducing  higher  forms  of  civilization, 
improvements  in  industries,  architecture,  arts  and  sciences, 
a  more  enlightened  religious  belief  by  abolishing  human 
sacrifices  and  many  forms  of  superstitious  rites  or  worship. 
The  ancient  history  of  the  Mexicans  still  remains  an  enigma 
next  to  impossible  of  solution.  Said  solution,  however, 
not  being  essential  to  the  object  of  this  work,  we 
will  not  enter  into  details  on  the  subject,  contenting  our- 
selves with  casting  a  rapid  glance  over  the  aforesaid  civili- 
zation. 

It  is  beyond  a  doubt  that  America  was  inhabited  many 
centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  though  not  a  trace  re- 
mains of  the  aborigines.  Those  who  have  imagined  that 
they  saw  in  the  Tollan  or  Tulan  of  the  Mexicans  the  ultima 
Tulce  of  Seneca,  deducting  therefrom  the  rc-julting  theory 
of  immiiirations,  have  gone  grievously  astray,  since,  if  not 
entirely  imaginary,  the  Tula-  in  (luestion  existed,  at  any  rate, 
subsequent  to  the  peopling  of  America.     The  probability 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  283 

is  no  doubt   that  the  Tula  of  the  Romans  as  well  as  the 
Tila  of  the  Icelander  geographer,  Carl  Rafn,  had  no  actual 

existence. 

America  was  not  peopled  by  any  one  current  of  immigra- 
tion, but  by  several.  The  Toltecs  came  from  the  northwest, 
be  their  point  of  departure  what  it  may,  and  they  came, 
perhaps,  obeying  through  a  long  series  of  centuries,  the 
creological  phenomenon  of  the  steady  cooling  of  the  north- 
ern rrcrions.  There  is  a  good  reason  for  supposing  that 
many  hundreds  or  thousands  of  years  ago,  Greenland  was 
occupied  by  a  flourishing  nation. 

Of  the  most  ancient  ruins  of  all,  there  are  not  now  even 
traces  ;  of  the  comparatively  modern,  there  exist  fortifica- 
tions and  remains  of  buildings,  principally  in  the  valleys  of 
Ohio,  Missouri  and  Mississippi.     The  emigrations  from  the 
regions  of  the  north  must  have  been  carried  out  without  any 
fixed    plan,   and,    possibly,    with    intestine   wars   as  their 
largely  determining  cause.     Tula  or  ToUan  must  have  been 
the^iame  of  the  northern  nation  that  gave  birth  to  these  emi- 
grations, and  Tolteca  or  Nahoa  the  language  spoken  there, 
modified  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  the  difi"erent  districts 
or  States  of  the  said  nation.     This  explains  the  persistency 
of    the    Nahoa    geographical    names    throughout    Mexico 
and  Central  America.     Of   the  northern    emigrants  some 
went  southwards  along  the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  and  between 
it  and  the  western  mountain  ranges ;  they  were  probably  the 
first  to  arrive  at  Chiapas  and  Guatemala,  and  were  also 
those  who  in  the  course  of  centuries,  attained  to  a  high 
decree  of  prosperity  and  civilization  in  said  localities,  and 
became   the    authors   of    the    palenquian    civilization,    as 
Orozco   y    Berra    called  it.     Perhaps  Violet-Le-Duc  was 
not    altogether   wrong   in    supposing   that    inhabitants   of 
Arian  or  "even  of  the  African  race,  must  have  preceded  in 
Yucatan   and    Chiapas,  principally,  the  Toltec  emigrants. 


284  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

A  study  of  the  bass  reliefs  of  Chichen  Itza  and  others  of 
the  monuments  of  Yucatan,  incites  to  this  belief,  the 
more  so  that  the  conquerers  encountered  on  the  Peninsula 
in  question,  types  which  were  perfectly  in  accordance 
with  those  found  amongst  the  inhabitants  of  northern 
Europe.* 

Another  of  the  northern  immigrations  must  have  been 
the  one  which  left  traces  of  its  passage  in  Missouri,  Illinois 
and  Ohio,  and  which  remained  awhile  in  the  region  now 
represented  by  our  northern  States.  Buried  in  the  fast- 
nesses of  the  eastern  Sierra  Madre,  fighting  for  possession 
of  the  vallej's  and  perhaps  of  the  water  supply,  these 
immigrants  subdivided,  retaining  in  the  course  of  the  cen- 
turies no  other  trace  of  their  relationship  than  the  somewhat 
faint  one  of  language.  The  most  considerable  of  the  immi- 
grations from  the  north  must  have  taken  place  when  their 
predecessors  who  occupied  Chiapas  and  Yucatan,  had  at- 
tained to  a  high  degree  of  civilization  ;  had  become  merged 
in  the  aboriginal  races,  white  and  black,  spoken  of  in  the 
Papol-Viih,  and  had  extended  their  dominion  southwards 
to  Guatemala  and  northwards  to  Oaxaca  and  Yucatan. 
Perhaps  the  palenquiau  civilization  had  even  then  begun  to 
decay  and  the  zapotecan  to  Hourish.  The  ruins  of  Izamal, 
Tizcocob,  Acamec  and  Chichen-Itza  are  worthy  of  the 
attention  due  to  relics  of  an  advanced  civilization.  The 
ruins  of  Mitla,  in  Oaxaca,  belong  clearly  to  a  new  priest- 
ruled  and  powerful  nation ;  they  have  somewhat  of  Egypt- 
ian art  and  much  of  Roman.  In  the  ruins  of  Yucatan  and 
Oaxaca,  as  compared  with  those  of  Chiapas,  there  is 
visible  a  renaissance.  The  former  are  products  of  a  more 
refined  taste,  while  at  the  same  time  they  indicate  their 
probable  relationship  with  the  latter. 


•  Vlolet-Le-Duc. 


ANP    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


285 


The  .teocalU  is  preserved ;  the  pilasters  or  intercoUimns 
without  base  or  capital,  begin  to  appear  in  the  Oaxaca  and 
Yucatan  remains,!  in   a  rudimentary  fashion ;  as  do  also 
the  arch  and  the  vault.     The  joints  are  better  adjusted,  the 
angles  purer,  the  levels  irreproachable ;   so  much"  so  that, 
according  to   the  author  already  cited,  "  there  were  only 
needed   evidences    of   the    carver's   art,    or  designs  which 
evinced  artificers  of   considerable  knowledge  and  skill,  to 
complete  the   architecture."     The  most  important  of  the 
immigrations  was,  as  we  have  said,  the  one  of  which  me- 
morials  exist   in   traditions,    hieroglyphics    and   "Writings. 
The  great  Toltec  peregrination  carried  out  by  a  large  num- 
ber of   tribes  who    kept  settling  along  the  road,  must  have 
taken  place  at  a  period  when  the  territory  of  Anahuac  was 
already  well   populated.     Trade   or   dissensions   went   on 
dividing  up  the  general  body  of  the  emigrants,  leaving  them 
stationed  along   the  banks  of   the  Gila,  in  territory  which 
formed  part  of  the  State  of  Sonora;  in  Casas  Grandes  of 
the  State  of   Chihuahua;  in  El  Zope,  in  Durango;  in  La 
Quemada,  in  Zticatecas;  in  Cholula  of  the  State  of  Puebla 
and  in  San  Juan  de  Teotihuacan  in  the  State  of  IMexico. 
Extending  immediately  southwards,  they  carried  along  in 
their  coursethe  Mistecos,  Chuchones,  Popolocos,  Amuchcos 
and  other  tribes  who  in  former  times  occupied  the  region  of 
the  valley  of  Mexico  and  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  and  the- 
Pacific.     When  the  Aztecs  arrived  in  the  country  occupied 
or  conquered  many  centuries  before  by  individuals  of  their 
own  race  the  descendants  of  these  last  were  disappearing  in 
Central  America,    leaving  behind   them   their  magnificent 
monuments,    and  the   Zapoteca    branch   was    flourishing. 
War,    perhaps,    was  what   gave   the    death-blow  to  these 
ancient    civilizations.     It    is    time    to    leave    the    subject. 


t  Reliable   authors   are   of  opinion    that   the  buildings    of  Yucatan 
belong  to  the  Maya  and  Toltec  civilizations. 


286  THE  RICHES  of  Mexico 

What  is  said  will  have  been  sufficient  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
antiquity  of  the  Mexican  population.* 


THE    ANCIENT    INHABITANTS    OF    JfEXICO. 

II. — The  Empire  of  Anahuac  h;id  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest  over  30,000,000  inhabitants.  In  the  territory  of 
Mexico,  Toluca,  Texcoco  and  Puebla  were  1,500,000  dwell- 
ing houses  capable  of  lodging  9,120,000  persons.  These 
figures  are  not  exaggerated  and  are  worthy  of  belief  since 
they  can  be  substantiated  by  creditable  dates,  for  in  the 
valley  of  Mexico,  alone,  from  1524  to  1540,  there  were 
more  than  6,000,000  of  Indians  baptized.  The  statistics 
drawn  up  by  Cortez  of  the  Valley  of  Anahuac,  shows  that 
there  were  620,000  families  composed  of  four  to  ten  indi- 
viduals each,  and,  according  to  the  information  furnished 
to  Charles  v.,  there  must  have  been  3,720,000  inhabitants. 
In  addition  to  this,  were  the  655  villages  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Tenoxtitlan  which  numbered  5,400,000  individ- 
uals, making  a  total  of  9,120,000,  of  which  we  have  made 
mention.  To  this  total  sum  may  be  added  the  number  of  in- 
habitants of  Morelia,  Potosi,  Veracruz,  Oaxaca,  Tabasco  and 
Yucatan,  estimated,  approximately,  at  20,880,000,  which 
sums  up  the  total  amount  to  30,000,000  inhabitants.  This 
number  decreased  with  great  rapidity  from  the  cruelty  of 
the  conquerors,  the  epidemics  and  famine.  Within  a  period 
of  36  years,  from  1520  to  1576,  three  and  one-half  millions 
of  the  native  inhabitants  died.  The  depopulation  of  the 
country  continued  at  such  a  rate  that  by  the  year  17J>3  the 
total  po|)ulati()n  of  New  Spain,  without  including  the  Pro- 
vinces of  Guadalajara,  Veracruz  and  Coahuila,  scarcely 
amounted    to    3,865,4I>9  individuals.     The  following  table 


*  lu  different  parts  of  Ibi.s  book  the  aucieut  RIexicau  civilization  is 
treated  of. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  287 

shows  the   increase   of  the   population  of   Mexico    for  95 
years : 

Inhabitants. 
Years.  AuthonUes. 

1793..Viceroy  Count  of  Revillagigedo *      *»^      ^°^ 

^^'''^"       ".-   ,^.  5       837       100 

iao3.. Humboldt ;;;;;;;;;;:;;;;;;;:; e  500  000 

1810..D  Fernando Navarroy  Noriega J  J^^  ^^^ 

1815.. D  John  Salas ^  ^^^  ^^^ 

1824..Poinsetts '  ^  ^^^  ^^^ 

1830..Burcardts - ^^  ^^^  284 

1831..A.  J.  Valdes ;••• 

1836 . .  Information  of  the  States  and  Territories 7  843  16Z 

1839..Geographical  and  Statistical  Society 7  044  ^^^ 

1852..r>.  Juan  N.  Almonte • ' 

1854. .Recorder  of  the  Minister  of  Fomentation 7  8o3  395 

1855..LerdodeTejada V.  i;."; :;  i'.::  i::'.:.".'  7  859  564 

1856..         "                      _  8  283  088 

1 856.. Garcia  Cubas ^  ^^^  ^^^ 

1856..0rozcoyBerra ^^^  ^^4 

1862..J.  M.Perez  Hernandez ^  ^^^  ^^^ 

1869.. Garcia  Cubas • ^.^ 

1872..Secretary  of  the  Interior ^  ^^^  ^^^ 

1873.. Bias  Balcarcel ^  ^^^  ^^^ 

1874..  Garcia  Cubas ^^^  ^^^ 

1878..Secretary  of  the  Interior •••  ^  ^^^  ^^^ 

1880..EmilianoBusto ^^  ^^^  ^^^ 

1882.. Vodo  Von  Glumun ^^  ^^^  ^^^ 

1886.. Garcia  Cubas ^^  ^^^  ^^^ 

1888..Direction  of  Statistics •  ^^  ^'^^  ^^^ 

1890 __  11       834       822 

1892 ■ 

From  this  data  it  will  be  seen  that  from  the  years  1852  to 
1862  the  population  increased  at  the  rate  of  9.58  per 
rent-  from  1862  to  1872,  8.34  per  cent;  from  to  1872 
to  1882,  9.94  per  cent;  from  1882  to  1892,  18.29  per 
cent  This  calculation  must  be  accepted  only  as  an 
approximate  one,  as  all  the  censuses  which  have  been 
taken  at  the  various  periods  mentioned  contain  glaring 
imperfections. 


288 


THE    RICHES   OF   MEXICO 


Population  of  the  States. 

III.  The  population  of  the  States  and  capitals  according' 
to  the  last  data,  is  as  follows:  — 


Middle  States.  Capitals. 

Federal  District.. Mexico 

Aguascalientes Aguascalientes. 

S.  Luis  Potosi S.  Luis  Potosi . . 

Guanajuato Guanaj  uato 

Queretaro Querotaro 

Hidalgo Pachuca 

Mexico Toluca 

Morelos Cuernavaca 

Tlascala TIaxcala ... 

Puebla Puebla 

Duraugo Durango , 

Zacatecas Zacatecas 

Northern  States. 

Chihuahua Chihuahua 

Coahuila Saltillo 

Nuevo  Leon Monterey 

Sonora Hermosillo 

Tamaulipas C.  Victoria 

Gulf  States. 

Veracruz Jalapa 

Tabasco S.  Juan  Btta . . . . 

Campeche Campeche 

Yucatan Merida 

Pacific  States. 

Chiapas S.  Cristobal  L.  C 

Oaxaca Oaxaca 

Guerrero Chilpancingo  — 

Michoacan Morelia 

Colima Collma 

Jalisco Guadalajara 

Sinaloa Culiacau 

Territory  of  Lower  \  ,-  „  ,, . 

California |Lala/ 

Territory  of  Tepic . Tepic    


In  the 

In  other  places       Total  in 

Capitals. 

of  the  State. 

each  State. 

329,535 

121,711 

451,246 

32,355 

89,571 

121,926 

62,573 

483,874 

546.447 

52,112 

855,004 

1,007,116 

23,520 

190,005 

213,525 

25,000 

409,212 

494,212 

11,585 

786,895 

798,480 

8,195 

143,345 

151,540 

G,771 

141,217 

147,988 

78,530 

760,938 

839,468 

24,800 

241,131 

265,931 

20,722 

506,244 

526,966 

13,128 

284,945 

298,073 

25,801 

162,199 

188,000 

40,703 

231,284 

271,987 

11,883 

154,009 

165,892 

10,092 

179,047 

189,139 

11,705 

630,119 

641,824 

8,536 

117,464 

125,000 

18,700 

72,480 

91,180 

32,000 

243,506 

275,506 

20,000 

279,941 

299,941 

28,827 

776,022 

806,845 

6,500 

332,035 

339,135 

26,974 

807,949 

834,923 

25,124 

44,423 

69,547 

95,000 

1,066,709 

1,284,614 

9,487 

214,197 

223,684 

6,093 

28,575 

34,668 

14,000 

110,019 

130,019 

Grand  Total. 


11,834,822 


AND    ITS   INSTITUTIONS.  289 


POPULATION    OF    THE    PRINCIPAL    CITIES. 

The  following  table  shows  the  actual  population  of  the 
principal  Mexican  cities. 

CITIES   HAVING   100,000   OR  MORE   INHABITANTS. 

States.  Localities.  Rank.  Inhabitants. 

Federal  District Mexico City 329,535 

Jalisco Guadalajara " 95,000 

Puebla Puebla "    78,530 

San  Luis  Potosi.  ••••  ....San  Luis Potosi "    62,573 

Guanajuato Guanajuato '*    62,112 

LOCALITIES   HAVING   20,000   OR   MORE   INHABITANTS. 

Guanajuato . . .' Leon City '  47,739 

Nuevo  Leon Monterrey "    41,703 

Aguascalientes Aguascalientes  . .  • "    32,355 

Yucatan M^rida "    32,000 

Oaxaca Oaxaca "    28,827 

Michoacan • Morelia ."    26,974 

Coahuila Saltillo *«    25,801 

Hidalgo Pachuca "    25,000 

Durango Durango "    24,800 

Guanajuato Celaya "    24,670 

Queretaro Quer^taro " 23,520 

Jalisco Ciudad  Guzman "    23,305 

Colima Coliraa "    25,124 

Guanajuato Allende "    21,748 

Zacatecas Zacatecas "    20,722 

Chiapas San  Cristobal  L.  C "    20,000 

Veracruz Veracruz «    26,000 

LOCALITIES   HAVING  10,000  OR  MORE  INHABITANTS. 

Veracruz Orizaba City 19,775 

Campeche Campeche "    18,700 

Yucatan Tinum Town 18,370 

Zacatecas Guadalupe Village 16,225 

Guanajuato Silao City 15,739 

San  Luis  Potosi Moctezuma "    15,666 

Guanajuato Irapuato Village 14,778 

Chiapas San  Bartolome City 14,669 

Chiapas Chamula  Town 14,500 

19 


290  THE    KICIIES    OF   MEXICO 

States.  Localities.  Rank.  InlKibiiants. 

Federal  District Xochimilco Town 1 4,373 

Guanajuato Salvatierra City 14,322 

Jalisco Lugos "    14,297 

Chiapas Comitan "    14,000 

Zacatccas    Ciudad  Garcia "    14,000 

Territory  of  Tepic Tepic "    14,000 

Chihuahua Chihuahua "    13,128 

Zacatccas Fresnillo "    13,021 

Sinaloa Mazatlan "    12,852 

Federal  District Tacubaya "    12,027 

Michoacan Uruapan "    12,000 

Jalisco Araeca City 12,000 

Jalisco Autlan "    12,000 

Sonora Hermosillo "    11,883 

Veracruz Jalapa "    11,705 

Mexico Toluca "    11,585 

Jalisco Teocuitatlan Town 11,286 

Michoacan Piedad  Cabadas City 11,142 

Jalisco Sayula •'       10,655 

Federal  District San  Angel Town 10,580 

Michoacan Angaugueo "       10,473 

Michoacan Sahuayo "      10,400 

Tamaulipas Ciudad  Victoria City 10,092 

Coahuila Monclova "    10,000 

Queretaro San  Juan  del  Rio "    10,000 

LOCAI^ITIES    HAVING    5,000    OR    MORE    IXnABITAXTS. 

Guanajuato Salamanca Village 9,992 

Jalisco Cocula City  9,936 

Tamaulipas Matamoros "    9,882 

Sinaloa Culiacan City 9,487 

Oaxaca Juchitan Village 9,223 

Sinaloa Mocorito "       9,000 

Jali-sco Etzatlan "       .  8,964 

Zacatecas Chalchihuites "       8,838 

Federal  District Tlalpam Municipality..  8,831 

Mexico Tenancingo City 8,682 

Tabasco San  Juan  Bautista "    8,536 

Michoacan Cotija Town 8,520 

Jalisco La  Barca City 8,352 

Nucvo  Leon Linares City 8,346 

San  Lais  Potosi Matehuala "    8,300 

Mexico Amecameca "    8,207 

Morclos Guernavaca "    8,195 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


291 


State.3.  Localities.  Rank.  Inhabitants. 

Hidalgo Tulancingo City 8,000 

Chihuahua Cusihuiriachic Town 8,000 

Chihuahua Hidalgo  del  Parral City 8,000 

Sinaloa Rosario Village 8,000 

Yucatan Hunucma "      8.000 

San  Luis  Potosl  Santa  Maria  del  Rio City 7,911 

Michoacan Pureparo Village 7,826 

Guanajuato Valley  of  Santiago "      7,800 

Jalisco Tuxpam Town 7,729 

Guanajuato Penjamo..   Village 7,657 

Veracruz. San  Andres  Tuxtla •      "      7,585 

Guanajuato •. .  San  Luis  de  la  Paz "      7,582 

Michoacan Patzcuaro City 7,511 

Jalisco San  Gabriel Village 7,500 

Oaxaca Tlaxiaco City 7,458 

Jalisco Ahualulco Village 7,428 

Zacatecas VUlanueva City 7,398 

Jalisco Encarnacion  de  Diaz "    7,384 

Tlaxcala Huamantla "    7,38L 

Guanajuato Dolores  Hidalgo "    7,200 

Michoacan Puruandiro "    7,180 

Federal  District Coyoacan Municipality. .  7,018 

Chihuahua..  Ciudad  Juarez City 7,000 

Durango San  Juan  de  Guadalupe..    "    7,000 

Zacatecas Sombrerete "    7,000 

San  Luis  Poto&i Catorce "    6,988 

Guanajuato S.  Francisco  del  Rincon.Village 6,950 

Chiapas Tenejapa Town 6,912 

Jalisco Arandas Village 6,839 

Guanajuato Santa  Cruz "     *5,«36 

Tamaulipas Tampico City 6,792 

Federal  District Atzcapotzalco Municipality. .  6,789 

Tlaxcala Tlaxcala City 6,771 

Guanajuato San  Felipe "    6,700 

Oaxaca Tehuantepec "    6,674 

Zacatecas Valparaiso Village 6,623 

Federal  District Guadalupe  Hidalgo "     6,566 

San  Luis  Potosl Lagunillas "     6,632 

Michoacan Cheran Town 6,500 

Jalisco Ojuelos "    6,500 

Guerrero Chilpancingo City ••  6,500 

Coahuila Parras "    6,500 

Guanajuato.    Moroleon Town 6,495 

Zacatecas Chupaderos "    6,448 


292  THE   EICHES   OF   MEXICO 

States.  Localities.  Kank.  Inhabitants. 

Federal  District Milpa  Alta "    6,362 

Jalisco Atotonilco  el  Alto City 6,242 

Coahuila    Matamoros Village 6,215 

Guanajuato Yuriria "     6,178 

San  Luis  Potosi Rayon City 6,150 

Lower  California La  Paz "    6,093 

Durango Lerdo Village 6,077 

Yucatan Ticul City 6,051 

Guerrero Tixtla  de  Guerrero "    6,010 

Puebla Morelos Village 6,000 

Guanajuato Acdmbaro "     5,990 

Michoacan Purdpero "     5,965 

Federal  District Hastahuacan Municipality..  5,910 

Federal  District Ixtapalapan "          ••  5,825 

Sonora Alamos City 5,802 

Zacatecas Veta  Grande Town 5,801 

Aguascalieutes Rincon  de  Romos City 5,790 

San  Luis  Potosi Gnadalcazar "    5,640 

Coahuila Sierra  Mojada Village 5,600 

Zacatecas Ortega  or  Rio  Grande...       "       5,365 

Chiapas Tuxtla  Gutz City 5,500 

Jalisco Jalostotitlan *'    5,485 

Guanajuato Comonfort '*    5,394 

Veracruz Coatepec City 5,362 

Morelos Yautepec '*    5.361 

Federal  District Tlabuac Municipality . .  5,271 

Oaxaca Villa  Alvarez Village 5,268 

Puebla Tehuacan City 5,232 

Michoacan Jiquilpem Town 5,220 

Guanajuato Iturbide Village 5,210 

Jalisco Ti-patitlan Town 5,205 

Sonora Guaymas City 5,200 

M6xico Zumpango "    5,145 

Aguascalieutes Jesus  Maria Town 5,125 

Jalisco Zupotiltic '♦    5,120 

Michoacan Tanhuato "     6,060 

Chiapas Tapachula City 6,046 

Jalisco Tecolotiaii Town 6,029 

Yucatan Valladolid City 6,010 

Zacatecas    Pluos "    6,000 

Jalisco Zapolitlan Town 5,000 

Veracruz Teocelo '«     6,000 

Sonora Ures City 5.000 

Veracruz Cordova "    5,500 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


293 


The  Pacific  States  comprises  Lower  California,  Colima, 
Chiapas,  Guerrero,  Jalisco,  Michoacan,  Oaxaca,  Sinaloa  aud 
the  Territory  of  Tepic,  population  4,023,376. 

The  Gulf  States  are  Campeche,  Tabasco,  Tamaulipas, 
Veracruz  and  Yucatan,  population  1,322.649. 

The  middle  States,  Federal  District,  Aguascalientes,  S. 
LuisPotosi,  Guanajuato,  Queretaro,  Hidalgo,  Mexico,  More- 
los,  Tlaxcala,  Puebla,  Durango  and  Zacatecas,  population, 
5,564.845. 

While  those  of  the  aorth,  Sonora,  Chihuahua,  Coahuila 
and  Nuevo   Leon  scarcely  amount  to  population,  923,952. 

We  give  the  comparative  density  of  each  of  the  Federal 
States  of  the  Republic : 


states.  Area  Area 

Miryaras.  Square 

Miles.* 

Federal  District..  376  975 

Aguascalientes —  16  42 

S.  Luis  Potosi 8  20 

Guanajuato 34  88 

QuSr^taro 23  67 

Hidalgo 21  61 

Mexico 33  102 

Morelos 21  85 

Tlaxcala 35  91 

Puebla 26  70 

Durango 3  6 

Zacatecas 8  23 

Sonora f  2 

Chihuahua 1  4 

Coahuila 1  3 

Nuevo  Leon 4  12 


States.  Area  Area 

Miryaras.  Square 
Miles. 
Lower    California 

(Ter.) i  I 

Chiapas 4  19 

Colima 11  20 

Sinaloa 3  6 

Jalisco 15  33 

Michoacan 14  35 

Guerrero 5  14 

Oaxaca 9  24 

Territory  of  Tepic  5  10 

Tamaulipas 2  7 

Veracruz 8  24 

Tabasco 5  10 

Campeche 2  4 

Yucatan 3  9 


We  see  that  the  Central  States,  especially  those  com- 
prising the  Valley  of  Anahuac,  have  the  most  population; 
the  number  of  inhabitants  per  each  square  kilometer  is  less 


*  The  estimate  on  square  miles  belong  to  the  Bureau  of  the  American 
Eepublics,  Washington,  U.  S.  A^ 


294  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO' 

in  the  re^^ion  of  the  southwest:  still  diininishinji  consider- 
ably  more  in  the  Gulf  States;  as  much  as  the  rich  and 
endless  plains  and  valleys  of  the  northern  region,  there  are 
found  but  few  inhabitants.  In  extensive  sections  of  the 
Northern  Frontier  there  can  .scarcely  be  counted  a  fraction 
of  an  inhabitant  to  the  square  kilometer.  The  causes  of 
this  region  not  being  inhabited  are  various,  among  others, 
the  inroads  of  the  hordes  of  savages,  which  from  the  most 
remote  periods  have  pillaged  those  regions  ;  and  the  in- 
security of  persons  and  property  which  became  proverbial 
there  during  the  revolutionary  epochs.  Among  the  States 
of  the  Pacific  the  richest  of  them  are  Chiapas,  Sinaloa  and 
Oaxaca,  which  are  found  equally  uninhabited;  and  notwith- 
standing the  great  wealth  of  these  sections,  they  remain  in 
a  state  of  nature,  as  two-thirds  of  the  population  is  com- 
posed of  Indians,  which  contribute  very  little  to  the 
local  riches.  In  like  manner  an  attentive  observer 
mav  remark  the  former  condition  of  the  same  or  greater 
irrciiularity  with  which  the  population  is  distributed 
in  the  Republic,  who  have  no  regard,  either  remotely  or  in 
forecasting  the  general  laws  of  the  climate,  for  the  natural 
condition  and  riches  of  the  lands,  or  connections  with  the 
centers  of  trade.  This  is  more  observable  when  a  general 
study  of  the  State  is  made,  and  thence  passing  to  that  of 
distinct  localities.  Along  the  borders  of  the  western 
Sierra  Madre,  the  population  abounds  in  an  uncivilized 
state,  and  absolutely  isolated.  All  this  is  owing  principally 
to  the  topographical  configuration  of  the  territory,  which 
makes  it  difficult  for  the  increase  of  the  population  ;  they 
isolate  themselves  in  communities  from  ooninumicatiou 
with  the  rest  of  the  world,  whose  members  seldom  leave 
their  homes  in  search  of  better  lands  and  surroundings, 
simply  content  with  their  unpropitious  circumstances,  and 
this  is  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the  state  of  back- 
wardness of  civilization   in  this  Republic.     This  defect  in 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  21)5 

the  progress  of  our  nation  is  the  lack  of  energy  among  the 
people,  who,  collectively,  submit  in  stolid  indifference  to 
their  unfavorable  condition  without  actively  exercising 
their  intelligence  to  improve  their  circumstances. 

RACES  — PREDOMINANT  RACES. 

IV.  The   present  predominating  race  in  Mexico  is  not 
the  Indian,  as  in  the  times  previous  to  the  conquest,  nor 
the  Spanish  race  as  in  the  time  of  government  by  Viceroys, 
or  even  the  Creole  as  in  the  first  years  of  the  Independence, 
but  a  people  springing  from  a  commingling  of  the  blood  of 
the   Spanish  and   American.     The   European    and   Indian 
have  amalgamated  to  such  an  extent  that  comparatively 
few   of   the   distinct  races   excel  in    Mexico.      Very    few 
Europeans  become  naturalized  citizens  of  the  country,  and 
as  for  the  Indians  they  live  in  nearly  absolute  independence, 
as  is  the  case  with  those  who  inhabit  the  mountains  of  Chia- 
pas and  Oaxaca ;  the  one  in  a  semibarbaric,  the  other  in  a 
secluded  manner;  either  in  a  lamentable  and  fallen  state,  as 
in  the  central  table  lands,  or  next  to  the  barbaric,  as  in 
Sonora   and  Chihuahua.     The  Indians,  by  virtue  of  their 
endowments  received,  are  pre-eminent  in  aptitude  for  any 
kind  of    accomplishment,    and  will    not     separate    them- 
selves   from  their   tribal   customs  to   join  in  the  general 
movement    of    progress  and  civilization   and  the    uniting 
of    their    race    with    the  ^  more    intelligent     one.      The 
Spanish-American,      which     forms     an     energetic      race, 
improved    by    the    amalgamation,    has    preserved    much 
of  the  Indian  tenacity,  endurance  in  adversity,  and  their 
war  spirit  and  inclination  to  strife ;   while  from  the  Spaniards 
he  has  derived  his    mental    qualifications    and    a  restless, 
chivalrous  spirit  with  not  a  little  of  his  lack  of  practical 
commou  sense.     The  mixed  race  are  the  managers  of  the 
industries,  directors   of  the  finances,  and  form  the  chief 


296  THE  raciiES  of  Mexico 

portion  of  the  tax-paying  class  of  Mexico.  The  Indian 
stupclied  and  discouraged  by  the  oppression  of  the  Span- 
iard, and  degenerated  by  superstition,  still  finds  himself 
unable  to  shake  off  the  inertia,  which  has  had  its  consum- 
ing effect,  not  for  the  want  of  intellectual  capacities,  but 
because  the  race  is  weighted  down  with  the  two  great 
elements  of  degeneration,  viz  :  oppression  and  fanaticism, 
which  prevent  it  from  rising  above  its  degraded  condition. 
The  horde  of  semi-barbarians  of  Yucatan  are  obedient  to 
only  two  motives,  hate  and  detestation  for  the  white  race 
and  love  of  the  priests.  Notwithstanding  this,  it  would  be 
ridiculous  at  the  present  day  to  enter  into  a  discussion  as  to 
the  capacity  of  the  Indians  to  *'  conceive  abstract  ideas," 
as  in  the  time  of  Robertson,  or  to  discuss  their  *'  strength 
and  resistence,"  as  in  that  of  Dn.  Benito  Maria  Moxo,  which 
hardly  conceded.  But  such  subjects  are  not  worthy  to 
occupy  too  much  attention  from  intelligent  persons.  There 
is  scarcely  in  existence  one  solitary  individual  possessor  of 
rudimentary  ethnical  knowledge,  who  would  dare  to  doubt 
the  moral  gifts  of  the  Indian  or  his  physical  resistence. 
The  Indian,  as  a  soldier,  is  sufficiently  known  to  European 
nations,  and  in  order  to  form  an  idea  of  his  moral  gifts, 
it  is  sufficient  to  read  the  story  of  Juarez,  Kamirez,  Alta- 
mirano  and  man}^  others  whose  names  have  been,  and  will 
continue  to  bo,  handed  down  on  the  brightest  page  of  history. 
Until  now  we  have  considered  the  Indian  by  comparison 
in  the  light  of  two  extremes,  from  the  highest  grade  of 
intelligence  to  that  of  the  barbaric  ;  wo  have  also  spoken 
of  the  degenerate  Indian  ;  and  we  will  now  consider  him  as 
one  joined  to  civilization,  that  is  to  say,  regenerated,  or 
become  amalgamated  with  the  predominant  race.  The 
Indian,  in  order  to  attain  the  civilization  of  his  more  fortu- 
nate neighbor,  has  two  roads  before  him,  the  army  and 
the  workshop.  The  army  is  a  school  and  ladder  for  the 
Indian  ;    the    school   where  he    can    obtain    a  rudimentary 


L.  Batres  Archeologist. 

IDOLS   AND   ANCIENT   INDIAN   TYPES. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  297 

education  to  place  him  on  tlie  road  to  securing  higher  posi- 
tions among  the  Spanish-American  element;  therefore, 
incidentally  it  may  be  stated  that  so  long  as  there  exists  so 
large  a  number  of  Indians  in  Mexico,  the  reduction  of  the 
army,  of  which  so  mach  has  been  said,  would  be  a  cen- 
surable measure. 

Besides  the  army,  the  Indian  has  another  road  to  civiliza- 
tion,— industry.  In  the  factories  and  workshops  he  is  placed 
in  contact  with  the  active  and  intelligent  elements  and  will 
ere  long  receive  the  benefits  of  the  stimulus;  he  com- 
mences  in  his  new  position  by  abandoning  his  dress,  which 
is  only  so  in  name,  and  adopting  that  of  the  Spanish- 
American,  finally  acquiring  intelligence  and  development 
of  his  moral  faculties. 

The  Spanish-American,  to  which  race  belongs  the  greater 
portion  of  the  public  functionaries  and  literary  men  of 
Mexico,  has  succeeded,  after  the  most  energetic  efforts  and 
with  the  material  aid  of  the  native  Indian  element,  in 
reconstructing  the  national  character,  binding  together  all 
its  parts,  fusing  its  dissolvent  elements  in  a  common  mass,' 
and  inspiring  in  all  classes,  with  the  love  of  country,  the 
spirit  of  true  progress. 


ETHNOGRAPHIC    DESCRIPTION. 

Mr.  Garcia  Cubas  furnished  us  with  the  following  table 
of  the  three  great  races  forming  the  population  of  the 
Republic:  Fir.st  race,  European  and  Spanish  American; 
second,  mixed;  third,  Indian. 

19  per  cent  of  the  first 2,165,185 

43  per  cent  of  the  second 4,900, 156 

38  per  cent  of  the  third 4,330,371 

11,395,712 


298  THE  RICHES  of  Mexico 

According  to  the  data  of  the  last  books  of  Mr.  Garcia 
Cubas,  —  1885  and  1889  —  the  j^^'oportlon  among  Indians, 
whites  and  mixed,  has  been  the  same  during  the  period 
mentioned,  which  is  not  the  actual  fact.  The  proportional 
rate  of  the  Indian  race  is  stationary  or  decreasing,  while 
the  Spanish  American  increases  on  his  own  account,  and  by 
reason  of  the  decrease  of  the  Indian.  As  a  proof  of  this, 
we  will  say  that  our  Kepublic  has  been  increasing  annually 
in  15.51  per  1,000,  and  of  this  amount  only  three  per  1,000 
belong  to  the  Indian  race,  perhaps  less  than  that.  We 
may  expect  that  before  a  century,  the  greater  part  of  the 
Indian  race  will  bo  amalgamated  with  the  predominating  one 
and  will  disappear ;  as  an  example  we  may  state  that  in  the 
northern  frontier,  there  existed  in  former  times  so  large  a 
number  of  Indians  that  they  could  form  a  great  army;  but 
they  have  been  gradually  disappearing  for  many  causes, 
and  they  will  ultimately  cease  to  exist  as  a  distinct,  race. 
In  the  year  1849,  the  Minister  of  War,  Grl.  Mariano 
Arista,  gave  the  following  information:  "There  are  a 
■great  many  Indians  in  a  vast  extension  of  territory  from 
Puerco  River  to  Las  Nueces,  who  live  by  hunting  the 
cibolo  —  the  Mexican  bull  —  and  many  other  animals  which 
abound  in  those  fertile  places;  and  according  to  the  infor- 
mation furnished  me  by  different  persons  whom  I  introduced 
among  the  Indians,  all  the  savage  tribes  could  form  an 
army  of  over  30,0(*0  individuals,  leaving  the  necessary 
number  for  the  protection  of  their  families."  That  is  to 
say,  that  in  only  one  portion  of  the  States  of  Chihuahua, 
Texas,  Nuevo  Leon  and  Coahuila,  there  were  over  250,000 
savage  Indians,  not  including  tiie  peaceful  natives,  amount- 
ing to  80,000,  which  gives  a  total  of  330,000  Indians  in  a 
territory  of  180,000  square  kilometers.  At  present  in  tJie 
same  territory  ihere  can  scarcely  be  found  25,t)00  to  30,000 
Indians. 

Towards  the  coast  of    the    Gulf,  the    Indian   element  is 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  299 

confounded  •with  the  mixed  one  ;  but  it  is  more  remuikable 
in  the  Central  Table.  Towards  the  northwest  the  aboriff- 
ines  occupy  the  greatest  portion  of  the  Sierras  Tarahu- 
mara,  in  Chihuahua  and  a  portion  of  the  State  of  Sonora; 
but  they  commence  to  decrease  towards  the  coast  of  the  Pa- 
cific. In  the  Central  States  and  in  those  of  the  southwest  the 
ludians  abound  to  the  same  extent  as  the  white  and  mixed 
races;  and  in  the  States  of  Oaxaca,  Guerrero,  Michoacan, 
Chiapas,  Tabasco,  Campeche  and  Yucatan  the  number  of 
Indians  is  greater  than  those  of  white  and  mixed  combined. 
According  to  the  classification  of  Mr.  Francisco  Pimen- 
tel,  which  is  the  best  at  the  present  day,  the  Indian  race  is 
subdivided  in  different  groups,  classified  according  to  their 
languages,  in  the  following  manner: 

Native  Mexican  or  Indian  Tribes.  —  They  are  composed  of  the 
native  Mexicans  and  Cuitlatecos,  and  are  found  in  the  States  of  Sinaloa, 
Jalisco,' South  of  San  Luis  Potosi,  Colima,  Coasts  of  Michoacan,  Guer- 
rero, Morelos,  Mexico,  Puebla,  Federal  District,  Hidalgo,  Tlaxcala,  Vera- 
cruz, Aguascalientes,  Tabasco,  Oaxaca  and  Chiapas,  and  amount  to 
1,849,000. 

Soxora  Opata-Pima  Tribe.  —  It  is  composed  of  the  Opatas-Limas, 
Papagos,  Yumas,  Yaquis,  Mayos,  Tarahumaras,  Coras,  Huichales,  Tepe- 
huanes  and  Acaxees,  and  are  found  in  the  States  of  Sonora,  Chihuahua, 
Durango,  Sinaloa,  Jalisco  and  Zacatecas,  amounting  to  85,000. 

GuAicuRA  AND  CocHiMi  Laimon  Tribe. — This  tribe  amounted  for- 
merly to  more  than  20,000  individuals,  inhabiting  the  Peninsula  of  Lower 
California.  At  the  present  time  it  has  been  reduced  in  the  northern 
region  to  2,500. 

Seri  Tribe.  —  It.  is  found  in  the  Island  of  Tiburon  and  in  the  coasts 
near  the  State  of  Sonora.  It  has  decreased  notably  and  at  present  it 
scarcely  amounts  to  200  individuals. 

Tarasca  Tribe.  —  This  is  an  ancient  and  powerful  tribe,  the  ancient 
enemy  of  the  Mexican  one,  and  founder  of  Michoacan.  It  is  found  in 
the  State  of  Michoacan  and  in  some  towns  of  the  States  of  Jalisco  and 
Guerrero.  It  has  decreased  on  account  of  its  amalgamation  with  the 
mixed  race  and  amounts  to  275,000. 

ZoQCE-MixE  Tribe,  — It  is  composed  of  the  Zoques,  Mixes  and  Tapi- 
juhipas  and  it  is  found  in  the  States  of  Chiapas,  Tabasco  and  especially 
in  Oaxaca,  .imounliiig  to  GO, 000. 


300  THE    KICUES    OF    MKXKO 

ToTONACA  Tribe.  —  It  is  found  in  Sierra  de  Huauchinango  totlie  north 
of  the  State  of  Puebla,  in  the  regions  of  Veracruz,  adjoining  Huastecos, 
between  the  rivers  of  Chachalacas  and  Cazones,  and  amounts  to  90,000. 

Mixteco-Zapoteca  Tribe.  —  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  races 
which  is  found  ia  the  State  of  Oaxaca,  and  in  a  portion  of  Guerrero  and 
Puebla.  It  is  comprised  of  Mixtecos,  Zapotecos,  Chuchones,  Popolocos, 
Cuicatecos,  Soltecos,  Chatinos,  Papabucos,  Arausgos,  or  Musgos,  Maza- 
tecos  and  Chiuantecos,  and  amounts  to  077,088. 

Matlalzinga  or  Pirinda  Tribe.  —  This  tribe  is  the  founder  of  the 
City  of  Toluca.  It  is  found  in  the  Valley  of  Toluca,  in  the  town  of  Charo 
of  Michoacan,  in  San  Martin  and  Santa  Cruz  of  the  District  of  Mascal- 
tepec  del  Valle,  in  San  Juan  Atzingo  San  Mateo  Mexicalzingo,  Calimaya 
and  San  Mateo  Temascalfcepec  and  amounts  to  5,000. 

Maya  Quiche  Tribe.  —  It  is  composed  of  the  Mayas  or  Yucatecos, 
Puncturoc,  Lacandones,  Petenes,  Itzacs,  Chanabales,  Comitecos  and 
Tocolobales,  Choles,  Quiches,  Tzotziles,  Tzendales,  Mames  and  Huaxtecos 
and  amount  to  456,283. 

CiioxTAL  Tribe.  —  It  is  found  in  the  State  of  Tabasco,  Guerrero 
Oaxaca  and  extends  towards  Guatemala  and  Nicaragua,  amounting  to 
31,000. 

Hu AVE  Tribe.  —  This  tribe  belongs  to  Nicaragua  and  is  found  in  the 
districts  of  Juchitan,  Tehuantepec  and  in  the  State  of  Chiapas,  amount- 
ing to  3,800. 

Apache  Tribe.  —  This  is  a  savage  tribe  which  is  composed  of  Chirica- 
hnes,  Toatos,  Mimbrenos,  Gilenos,  Mescaleros,  Sacramentefios,  Carriza- 
lenos,  Xicarillas,  Mogollones,  Lipanes,  Faraones  and  Navajoes.  These 
tribes  are  found  in  territories  belonging  to  the  United  States  and  come 
very  often  to  our  territories.  The  number  of  those  residing  in  the  States 
of  Chihuahua  and  Sonora  can  be  estimated  in  8,000. 

Othomi  Tribe. — It  is  comprised  of  Othomies,  inhabitants  of  the 
States  of  Guanajuato  Queretaro  "West  of  Hidalgo,  N.  W.  of  Mexico;  the 
Serranos,  inhabitants  of  Sierra  Gorda  in  Guanajuato;  IMaxahuas  in  the 
district  of  Ixtlahuaca,  Villa  del  Valle  and  in  the  Sierras  of  Tajimaroa, 
Tlapujahua  and  Zitacuaro;  Pames  in  the  Old  Mission  of  Cerro  Prieto,  of 
Jacala,  State  of  Hidalgo,  in  Santa  Maria  Acapulco,  State  of  Qucr6taro, 
in  Purisiraa  de  Arnedo  and  Xichi  of  the  State  of  Guanajuato,  but  the 
greatest  part  of  this  tribe  is  found  in  the  eastern  districts  of  the  State 
of  San  Luis  Potosi,  and  the  Joraares,  or  Mecos,  are  found  in  the  chaiu  of 
mountains  of  Guanajuato.  The  Othomies  are  found  in  the  surroundings 
of  the  Capital  of  the  Republic,  in  the  town  of  Ixtenco  iu  Tlaxcala  and  in 
the  mountains  between  the  Valley  of  Mexico  and  Toluca.  The  number 
of  them  is  estinialed  in  704,734.  The  total  of  ludiaus  of  the  different 
tribes  amounts  to  4, '-'47, 005. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


301 


The  Spaniard.,  Tvho  form  one  of  the  elements  or  our  race  are  found  in 
tlie  Mexican  territory  iu  tlie  following  manner :  —  


Aguascalientes 

Campeche 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Ctiiapas 

Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Michoacan 

Mexico 

Morelos 

Nuevo  Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Queretar 

San  Luis  Potosi 

Sioaloa 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala 
Veracruz 
Yucatan 
Zacalecas 
Federal  District 
Lower  California 
Territory  of  Tepic 


Total  amount 


Commerce,  has  reference  to  the  year  If/'.^^^^^j^.^.^^f^or^  tbat, 

To  the  preceding  total  must  be  added  the  following :- ^^..^ 


Former  total. 
Immisrauts  remaining  in 


the 'Republic,  as  per  official  data  up  to 


2,685 


CalcSio^sba^^d^n^h^pr'eceding^mmVgk*^^^  If^l 


33%  of  unregistered .    c..,;,, 

CaJculation  as  to  its  capacity  for  increase  m  Spain. 


Probable  total . 


884 
17,717 


302  TlIK    IlICHES    OF    MEXICO 


CHAPTER  ly. 

IMMIGRATION    AND    COLONIZATION. 

Primary  Laws. 

I.  The  first  care  of  Spain,  when  the  conquest  was  once 
an  established  fact,  was  to  close  up  to  the  rest  of  the  Con- 
tinent all  the  ports  of  her  American  possessions.  Nay,  she 
went  further  and  limited  the  traffic  so  that  it  should  be 
carried  on  only  by  certain  favored  persons  and  cities,  the 
monoply  falling  especially  to  the  share  of  Seville  and  Cadiz. 
These  primitive  regulations  were  ratified  by  royal  decrees 
on  the  15th  of  May,  1509,  the  Uth  of  September,  1519, 
and  by  others  later  on,  because  one  issued  on  the  15th  of 
January,  1529,  empowering  various  ports  to  trade  with 
America,  produced  no  practical  effect.  A  proclamation 
dated  the  16th  of  July,  1561,  and  which  gave  rise  to  the 
system  of  freightage,  restricted  still  more  the  intcroceanic 
commerce.  This  state  of  things,  with  an  occasional  slight 
change,  was  prolonged  for  years  and  years  until  King 
Charles  III.  issued  the  ordinance  or  edict  of  free  trade  and 
which  bore  the  date  of  12th  of  October,  1778.  This 
ordinance  extended  to  thirteen  Spanish  ports  the  right  of 
trading  with  New  Spain  and  was  a  kind  of  precedent  for 
that  of  1799,  by  which  trade  was  allowed  between  New 
Spain  and  neutral  ports.  We  may  suppose  that  it  was  at 
this  time  that  exotic  immigration  into  the  Colonial  territory 
began,  that  is,  immigrants  came  here  who  were  not  from 
Spain,  Asia  or  Africa. 

The  decree  of  the  Spanish  Court ,  dated  the  9th  of  Novem- 
ber, 1820,  put  aclimax  to  the  i)revious  ones  and  withdrew  the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  303 

ancient  monoply  of  Veracruz.  It  gave  the  right  to  five  ports 
in  the  Gulf  to  trade  with  Europe  and  the  colonies,  and  in 
the  Pacific  it  empowered  those  of  Acapulco,  San  Bias  and 
Mazatlan  to  do  so.  This  regulation,  made  under  pressing 
circumstances,  preceded  only  a  little  the  memorable  event 
of  Mexico's  political  emancipation  ( 1821 )  and  was  promul- 
gated shortly  before  the  decree  of  October  8th,  1823,  by 
which  when  the  territory  of  Mexico  was  opened  to  the  com- 
merce of  the  world,  it  was  closed  to  Spanish  merchandise 
and  Spanish  ships. 

During    the   colonial    epoch  the  restrictions    laid   upon 
foreigners  were  being  fast  broken  through.     Mining,  which 
as  is  well  known,  is  the  irresistible  loadstone  of  adventurers, 
was  entirely  forbidden  to  them  until  by  virtue  of  a  decree 
dated  the  7th  of  October,   1823,  the  following  laws  were 
abrogated:  Law  12,  tit:    10,  book  5,  and  law  5,  tit.  18, 
book  6  of  Summary  of  Castile;  law  1,  tit.  7,  book  8,  and 
those  comprised  under  tit.  27,  book  9  of  the  Indies  Summary 
along  with  Art.  1,  tit.  7  of  the  Mining  Ordinances.     It  was 
due  to  the  abrogation  of  this  last  that  foreigners  gained  the 
right  to  acquire  shares  in  mines,  both  free  ones,  and  those 
for  which  they  were  liable  to  be  assessed  for  damages  or 
improvemets  to  the  mine.     Their  rights,  however,  were 
limited  when  acquiring  shares  in  non-working  mines  whether 
in  reo-istering  new  ones  or  in  claiming  abandoned  ones. 
The  first  decree  relating  to  colonization  is  dated  the  14th  of 
October,  1823,  and  by  it  the  unoccupied  lands  of  the  new 
province  which  was  to  be  formed  out  of  Acayucan  and 
Tehuantepec  were  destined  for  the  estahlishment  of  natives 
and  foreigners.     In  the   following  year,   1824,  a  law  was 
passed  on  the  18th  of  August,  which  authorized  foreigners 
to    settle   on    national    lands    provided    no    one    of    them 
possessed  an   estate  of  more  than  one  square  league  con- 
taining 5,000  varas  of  irrigated  land,  4  producing  season 
crops  and  G  with  watering-stations  on  them. 


304  THE    KICUES    OF    3IKXICO 

This  law  provided  that  the  lands  situated  within  20 
leagues  of  the  inland  boundary  lines  and  within  10  of  the 
coast  line  should  not  be  colonized  by 'foreigners,  unless  with 
the  previous  authorization  of  the  Federal  Executive.  This 
regulation  is  still  in  force  and  has  been  ratified  by  later 
laws.  In  1828,  whilst  the  conspiracy  of  P.  Arenas  was  still 
fresh  in  men's  minds,  and  whilst  the  new  institutions  were 
little  trusted  and  everything  foreign  was  looked  upon  with 
alarm,  the  laws  of  the  12th  of  March  and  14th  of  April 
were  promulgated,  and  in  accordance  with  them  passports 
and  naturalization  were  required  of  those  who  entered  the 
country. 

These  laws  were  passed  only  a  little  more  than  a  year 
before  the  memorable  one  of  the  20th  of  May,  1829,  for 
the  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  which  crowned  the  initiative 
already  taken  by  the  States  of  Jalisco,  Michoacan  and 
Mexico. 

In  1842  the  law  of  the  14th  of  March  laid  down  that 
foreigners  could  possess  lauded  property,  but  not  more  than 
two  farms  in  the  same  department,  and  no  proprietorship  of 
laud  whatever  on  the  frontiers  or  coast.  It  was  also  ruled 
that  foreigners  who  remained  out  of  the  Republic  for  more 
than  two  consecutive  years  should  lose  all  rights  to  their 
properties. 

Several  laws  of  the  same  tenor  were  passed  during  the 
long  period  of  political  and  economical  reconstruction 
through  which  the  Republic  had  to  go.  In  all  of  them  may 
be  seen  the  struggle  between  two  antagonistic  principles; 
the  first  being  distrust  of  the  foreigner,  and,  unhappily, 
a  distrust  too  well  justified;  the  second,  the  liberal  spirit 
of  the  atre,  which  at  times  was  reflected  with  brilliant 
intensity  from  the  high  souls  of  the  men  of  battle  of  those 
days. 

On  the  eve  of  the  proclamation  of  the  Ayutla  plan,  on 
the   16th  of  February,  1854,  a  law  was  passed  in  which 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  305 

lands  and  pecuniary  help  were  offered  to  European  immi- 
grants. 

During  the  administration  of  Mr.  D.  Sebastian  Lerdo  de 
Tejada  a  law  was  passed  on  the  31st  of  May,  1875,  which 
authorized  the  Executive,  during  the  time  that  a  law  was 
being  brought  in  and  passed  for  definitely  determining  and 
arranging  all  that  related  to  colonization,  to  put  into  exe- 
cution by  its  own  direct  action  the  law  already  mentioned 
by  means  of  contracts  with  particular  companies  and  on 
certain  general  bases. 

LAWS  IN  FORCE  GOVERNING  I^IMIGBATION  AND  C0L0N^ZAT10N. 

n.  A  decree  dated  the  loth  of  December,  1883,  com- 
pleted what  was  left  undone  by  the  previous  law  and  finally 
opened  the  sluice-gate  for  the  colonizing  stream. 

By  virtue  of  this  decree  the  Executive  was  authorized  to 
look  after  the  measurement,  boundaries,  partitions  and 
valuations  of  the  untilled  lands  or  national  properties 
which  existed  in  the  Republic  in  order  that  the  necessary 
steps  might  be  taken  to  establish  colonists. 

The  divisions  were  in  no  case  to  exceed  6,012  acres, 
this  amount  of  land  being  the  largest  extent  which  it  was 
allowable  to  give  to  one  individual  who  had  arrived  at 
man's  estate  and  was  capable  of  making  a  legal  contract. 

The  lands  thus  marked  out,  measured,  divided  and  valued 
might  be  given  to  foreign  immigrants  and  to  natives  of  the 
country,  who  wished  to  settle  on  them  as  colonists,  under 
the  following  conditions  : 

I.  That  the  lands  be  bought  at  a  valuation  fixed  by  engin- 
eers and  approved  of  by  the  Colonization  Secretaryship  on 
a  ten  years'  purchase,  payment  commencing  from  the 
second  year  of  the  colonist's  establishment  on  the  land. 

II.  That  the  lands  be  bought  for  cash,  or  paying  at 
shorter  dates  than  those  fixed  by  the  previous  condition. 

20 


306  THE  RICHES  of  Mexico 

TIL  That  a  free  title  be  given  to  the  colonist  when  he 
asked  for  it,  but  in  Such  case  the  extent  of  the  land  must 
not  be  more  than  one  hundred  hectares  or  250  acres,  and 
no  title  to  the  ownership  can  be  obtained  except  when  it 
is  justified  by  the  man  having  held  the  land  in  his  power 
and  by  his  having  cultivated  the  whole  of  it  or  at  least  not 
less  than  the  tenth  part  of  it  during  five  consecutive  years. 

In  order  to  bo  reo-arded  as  a  colonist  and  to  have  a  riijht 
to  the  privileges  grunted  to  such  by  law,  foreign  immigrant 
must  bring  with  him  to  the  Republic,  a  certificate  from  the 
consul  or  immigration  agent  or  from  the  company  or  house 
authorized  by  the  Executive  to  bring  colonists  to  the 
Republic. 

Colonists  who  settle  in  the  country  enjoy  the  following 
privileges  for  ten  years  beginning  from  the  date  of  then' 
establishment : 

I.  Freedom  from  military  service. 

II.  Exemption  from  all  taxes  except  municipal  ones. 

III.  Exemption  from  importation  or  inland  duties  upon 
provisions  where  there  are  none  to  be  had,  upon  agricul- 
tural implements,  tools,  machinery,  chattels,  building 
materials  for  houses,  necessary  furniture,  breeding  animals 
which  are  destined  for  the  colonies. 

IV.  Personal  and  intransmissible  exemption  from  export 
duties  upon  the  produce  of  the  lands. 

V.  Prizes  for  excellence  of  work,  rewards  and  special 
protection  for  the  introduction  of  new  culture  or  industry. 

VI.  Freedom  from  the  duties  upon  the  legalization  of 
signatures  and  the  issuing  of  passports  which  the  consular 
agents  grant  to  individuals  who  enter  the  Republic  for  its 
colonization  by  virtue  of  contracts  made  by  the  govern- 
ment with  a  particular  firm  or  firms. — Every  foreign  im- 
migrant who  settles  in  a  colony  is  bound  before  being 
established,  to  make  known  in  presence  of  the  Federal  agent 
of  colonization  or  before  the  respective  notary  or  judge, 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  307 

his  nationality  and  whether  he  desires  to  retain  such 
nationality  or  to  obtain  that  of  Mexico  in  accordance  with 
the  privilege  which  the  Constitution  of  the  Republic  gives 
him  in  such  a  case.  The  colonists  have  all  rights  and  duties 
which  the  Federal  Constitution  grants  to  and  imposes  upon 
Mexicans  afld  foreigners  as  the  case  may  be.  They  are, 
however,  in  all  questions  that  may  arise  or  to  whatever 
class  the  persons  may  belong,  subject  to  the  tribunals  of 
the  Republic  to  the  total  exclusion  of  all  foreign  interference. 
Colonists  who,  without  a  justifying  reason,  abandon  for 
more  than  a  year  the  lands  which  have  been  granted  them 
for  purchase,  and  without  having  paid  for  them  in  full,  lose 
all  right  to  the  said  lands  and  also  to  that  part  of  the 
purchase  money  which  they  may  have  paid. 

Mexicans  who  reside  abroad  and  desire  to  settle  on  the 
vacant  lands  of  the  frontiers  of  the  Republic  have  a  right  to 
a  free  grant  of  land  upon  the  same  conditions  as  those  given 
under  number  III,  of  article  3,  which  we  have  mentioned 
above.  The  extent  of  such  a  grant  is  200  hectares,  or  500 
acres  with  the  enjoyment  for  fifteen  years  of  the  exemp- 
tions which  this  law  grants.  The  law  also  empowers  the 
Executive  to  assist  colonists  or  immigrants  in  such  cases  as 
it  deems  convenient,  having  regard  always  to  the  amounts 
assigned  them  in  the  estimates,  having  regard  also  to  the 
expenses  of  transporting  their  persons  and  luggage,  both  by 
sea  and  land,  and  taking  into  consideration  the  distance  the 
railways  carry  them.  Such  colonists  have  too  a  free  main- 
tenance for  fifteen  days  at  their  places  of  settlement  and 
are  supplied  with  tools,  seeds,  building  materials  and 
animals  for  working  and  breeding  purposes.  For  these  last 
services  the  State  is  re-imbursed  according  to  the  value  of 
the  lands  ceded. 

The  Executive  can  authorize  companies  to  lay  out  untilled 
lands,  provided  they  measure,  set  up  boundary  limits, 
divide  into  lots,  value  and  describe   them  for  the  transport 


308  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

of  colonists  thereto,  and  their  settlement  thereon.  The 
lands  marked  out  by  such  companies,  with  the  exception  of 
those  granted  to  the  said  companies,  for  their  expenses  in 
laying  out,  are  given  to  colonists  or  held  in  reserve  by  the 
government. 

Foreigners  and  Naturalization, 

Amono-  the  provisions  of  the  law  dated  the  28th  of 
May,  1886,  and  which  relates  to  foreigners  and  their  natural- 
ization, the  following  may  be  of  interest  for  the  immigrant 
inasmuch  as  they  inform  him  of  the  guarantees,  rights 
and  immunities  which  he  can  enjoy  in  the  country. 

Expatriation.-:— T\iQ'RQY)\\h\\Q,  of  Mexico  recognizes  expat- 
riation or  emigration  as  the  natural  and  inherent  right  of 
every  man  and  as  necessary  to  the  enjoyment  of  individual 
liberty.  It  therefore  both  permits  its  own  inhabitants  to 
exercise  this  right  so  that  they  may  leave  their  country  and 
settle  down  in  a  foreign  land,  and  protects  the  right  which 
foreigners  of  every  nationality  have  to  come  and  live  under 
its  jurisdiction.  The  Kepublic  then  receives  subjects  or 
citizens  from  other  States  and  naturalizes  them  in  con- 
formity with  the  said  law  of  the  28th  of  ]\Iay,  1886. 

Expatriation  and  naturalization  in  another  country  do 
not,  however,  exempt  a  criminal  from  extradition  and  the 
trial  and  punishment  due  to  him  in  accordance  with  the 
treaties,  international  customs  and  the  laws  of  the  country. 

Citizens  who  have  been  naturalized  and  made  such  in 
Mexico,  even  if  they  be  in  foreign  lands  have  a  right  to  the 
same  protection  from  the  Government  of  the  Republic  as 
Mexicans  who  are  so  by  birth,  whether  the  matter  be  one 
of  person  or  property.  This  does  not  hinder  them,  if  they 
return  to  their  original  country,  from  being  subject  to  the 
responsibilities  which  they  may  have  incurred  before  their 
naturalization  in  Mexico  and  by  the  laws  of  their  tirst 
country. 


AND   ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  309 

The  Mexican  Government  protects  its  citizens  abroad  as 
far  as  international  laws  allow.  The  President,  accord- 
ing as  he  deems  it  convenient,  makes  use  of  the  means 
placed  at  his  disposal  by  international  laws,  always  provided 
they  do  not  constitute  acts  of  hostility ;  and  even  so,  if 
diplomatic  interference  is  not  sufficient  and  if  the  means  at 
his  disposal  are  not  enough  for  his  purpose,  or  if  the  injuries 
to  the  Mexican  nation  are  so  grave  as  to  demand  severe 
measures,  then  the  President  gives  immediate  account  of 
the  matter  to  Congress  and  lays  before  it  the  documents 
relating  thereto  in  order  that  effective  constitutional  steps 
may  be  taken.  The  naturalization  of  a  foreigner  loses  its 
effect  if  he  reside  in  his  original  country  during  two  years, 
unless  he  does  so  in  the  discharge  of  an  official  commission 
from  the  Government  or  with  the  latter' s  permission. 

^Naturalization. —  Every  foreigner  who  fulfills  the  neces 
sary  conditions  laid  down  by  the  law  can  be  naturalized  in 
the. Republic.  At  lest  six  months  before  petitioning  for  nat- 
uralization his  request  should  be  presented  in  writing  before 
the  municipality  of  his  place  of  residence.  In  this  request 
he  should  state  his  desire  to  become  a  Mexican  citizen  and 
to  renounce  his  foreign  nationality.  The  municipality  will 
then  give  him  a  copy  certificate  of  his  statement  and  keeps 
the  original  in  its  records. 

When  the  six  months  have  passed  and  after  the  foreigner 
has  resided  two  full  years  in  the  Republic  he  can  ask  the 
Federal  Government  to  grant  him  a  certificate  of  natural- 
ization. In  order  to  obtain  it  he  must  first  present  himself 
before  the  district  judge  under  whose  jurisdiction  he  may 
be  and  offer  proof  of  the  following  i 

I.  That  according  to  the  law  of  his  country  he  is  in  the 
full  enjoyment  of  his  civil  rights  and  is  of  age. 

II.  That  he  has  resided  in  the  Republic  for  at  least  two 
years  and  that  during  that  time  he  has  observed  good 
conduct. 


310  Tiir:  RICHES  of  Mexico 

III.  That  ho  has  means,  a  trade,  profession  or  funds  on 
which  to  live. 

To  the  petition  which  he  presents  to  the  district  judge 
asking  hitn  to  authorize  this  information,  he  must  also  add 
the  certificated  copy  given  him  by  the  municipality  and 
must  send  too  an  express  renunciation  of  all  submission, 
obedience  and  fidelity  to  any  foreign  government,  and 
especially  to  the  one  of  which  he  was  previously  a  subject: 
he  has  also  to  renounce  all  foreign  protection  from  the  laws 
and  authorities  of  Mexico,  and  all  the  rights  which  are 
conceded  to  foreigners  by  treaty  or  international  law. 

The  district  judge  before  ratifying  the  petition  directs  that 
the  testimony  of  the  witnesses  be  received  in  presence  of  the 
State  Prosecutor  Promoter  and  he  can  also,  if  he  deems  it 
necessary,  demand  information  regarding  such  witnesses 
from  the  municipality. 

The  judge  likewise  admits  whatever  other  proofs  there 
may  be  of  the  points  laid  down  in  the  petition  and  asks  the 
opinion  of  the  State  Prosecutor  Promoter  thereon. 

He  then,  in  case  his  judgment  is  favorable,  remits 
the  original  document  to  the  Foreign  Secretaryship  in 
order  that  if  there  be  no  legal  impediment  the  certificate  of 
naturalization  may  be  issued.  The  petitioner  then  through 
the  same  judge  draws  up  a  petition  for  the  said  Secretary- 
ship asking  for  a  certificate  of  naturalization,  and  again, 
declaring  his  renunciation  of  all  foreign  rights  and  stating 
his  adhesion,  obedience  and  submission  to  the  laws  and 
authorities  of  Mexico. 

Foreigners  who  serve  in  the  national  merchant  navy  can 
bo  naturalized  after  a  service  on  board  of  one  year  only. 
The  necessary  formalities  may  be  gone  through  before 
the  district  judge  of  any  of  the  posts  at  which  the  vessel 
touches  and  in  liUe  manner  any  of  the  municipalities  of  tlio 
same  is  empowered  to  receive  the  petitioner's  inujiifestat  ion. 
Foreiijrners  who  l»v  virtue  of  the  law  are  alreadv  naturalized 


AND    ITS    IXSTITUTIOXS.  311 

and  those  who  have  the  lifrht  of  choosing:  to  become  Mcxi- 
can  citizens  or  not,  are  not  included  in  these  provisions. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  children  of  a  Mexicun  man  or  woman 
who  has  lost  his  or  her  citizenship,  the  foreign  woman  who 
marries  a  Mexican,  the  children  of  a  foreign  father,  or  of 
a  foreign  mother,  and  of  an  unknown  father  if  born  in 
Mexico  territory  and  the  Mexican  woman  who  is  the  widow 
of  a  foreigner,  are  all  looked  upon  by  the  law  as  naturalized 
if  they  fulfill  these  conditions  and  for  them  there  is  no  need 
of  any  formalities. 

Foreigners  who  acquire  landed  property  in  the  Republic, 
who  have  had  children  born  to  them  in  Mexico  and  who 
serve  the  Government  in  an  official  capacity,  can  apply  to 
the  Foreign  Secretaryship  for  their  certificate  of  naturaliza- 
tion Within  the  term  of  one  year.  To  their  petition  there 
must  be  added  a  certificate  of  their  having  acquired  landed 
property,  had  children  born  in  Mexico,  or  accepted  some 
public  employment,  according  as  their  special  case  may  be. 
They  must  also  present  the  renunciation  of  rights  and  the 
protest  of  submission  required  for  ordinary  cases  of 
naturalization.  • 

Absence  in  a  foreign  country  with  the  leave  of  Govern- 
ment, provided  such  absence  does  not  exceed  two  months 
during  a  period  of  two  years,  does  not  interrupt  the  neces- 
sary number  of  years'  residence  in  the  Republic. 

Certificates  of  naturalization  are  not  granted  to  the  subjects 
or  citizens  of  a  nation  with  which  the  Republic  may  be  at 
war.  Neither  are  they  conceded  to  persons  who  are  reputed 
and  judicially  declared  in  other  countries  to  be  jnrates, 
slave  dealers,  incendiaries,  coiners,  bank  forgers,  or  forgers 
of  any  papers  which  serve  as  money,  nor  are  they  given  to 
murderers,  nighway  robbers  or  thieves. 

Any  naturalization  fraudulently  obtained  by  a  foreigner 
in  violation  of  the  law  is  absolutelv  null  and  void. 


312  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

Certificates  of  Dutiiralization  are  issued  entirely  gratui- 
tously so  that  no  payment  can  be  demanded  for  them 
whether  under  the  title  of  costs,  registration  fee,  stamp  or 
any  other  name. 

As  the  act  of  naturalization  is  in  an  especial  way  personal 
lie  who  wishes  to  become  naturalized  can  only  be  repre- 
sented by  a  person  with  special  faculties  for  the  act,  and 
these  faculties  must  include  the  power  of  making  the 
renunciation  of  foreign  rights  and  the  protest  of  submission 
to  Mexico.  In  no  case,  however,  can  the  representative 
supply  the  defect  of  residence  in  the  Eepublic  for  the 
proper  period  of  time  by  the  foreigner.  A  citizen  and  for- 
eigner cannot  exchange  their  qualities  as  such  nor  transfer 
them  to  another  person  so  that  neither  the  citizen  can 
enjoy  the  rights  of  the  foreigner  nor  the  latter  the  prerog- 
atives of  the  former. 

The  change  of  nationality  or  naturalization  produces  no 
retroactive  or  backward  effect.  The  acquisition  and  enjoy- 
ment of  the  rights  of  a  Mexican  citizen  only  take  effect  on 
the  day  after  that  on  which  all  the  conditions  have  been 
fulfilled  and  all  the  formalities  gone  through  which  the  law 
lays  down  for  the  obtaining  of  naturalization.  Colonists 
who  come  to  the  country  in  fulfillment  of  contracts  made  by 
the  Government  and  whose  traveling  expenses  and  settle- 
ment are  paid  for  by  the  same  are  regarded  as  Mexicans.  In 
their  enrollment  contract  they  must  state  their  determina- 
tion to  renounce  their  former  nationality  and  to  adopt  that 
of  Mexico.  And  on  being  established  in  the  colony  they 
present  themselves  before  a  competent  authority  to  make 
a  further  renunciation  and  protest  which  is  sent  to  the 
minister  of  foreign  afiairs  in  order  that  the  proper  certifi- 
cate of  naturalization  may  be  issued. 

Colonists  who  come  to  the  country  on  their  own  account 
or  on  behalf  of  companies  or  of  private  enterprises  which 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  313 


do  not  receive  any  government  subvention,  in  fact,  immi- 
grants of  every  kind  can  become  naturalized  in  accordance 
with  some  or  other  of  the  provisions  of  this  law.  Tliose 
colonists  who  have  hitherto  settled  in  the  country  are  also 
bound  by  the  same  law  in  all  that  does  not  oppose  the 
rio-hts  they  have  acquired  by  their  contracts. 

"Xhe  naturalized  foreigner  becomes  a  Mexican  citizen  as 
soon  as  he  complies  with  all  the  regulations  laid  down  in 
Art.  34  of  the  Constitution.  He  is  then  on  an  equality 
with  Mexicans  as  far  as  regards  his  rights  and  duties,  but 
he  is  of  course  incapacitated  from  holding  such  positions  or 
employments  as  according  to  law  must  be  filled  by  natives 
by  birth.  There  is  an  exception,  however,  even  to  this, 
viz.:  when  a  person  has  been  born  within  the  national 
territory  but  has  been  naturalized  in  accordance  with  num- 
ber II  of  Art.  the  2d  of  the  law  dated  the  28th  of  May, 
1886,  and  which  refers  to  foreigners. 

The  Rights  and   Duties  of  Foreigners. 

Foreigners  in  the  Republic  enjoy  the  civil  rights  which 
are  the  due  of  Mexicans  as  well  as  the  privileges  granted 
under  Section  I,  Title  I,  of  the  Constitution,  the  only 
exception  to  these  rights  and  privileges  being  that  the 
Government  has   the  power  to  expel  a  foreigner  who  is 

pernicious. 

In  order  to  become  possessors  of  untilled  national  lands, 
landed  property  and  ships  foreigners  are  not  bound  to 
reside  in  the  Republic,  but  they  remain  subject  to  the 
restrictions  which  the  reigning  laws  impose.  This  rule 
holds  o-ood  in  all  cases  where  the  ownership  means  the  hiring 
of  immoveables  or  fixtures  by  a  foreigner  when  the  term  of 
bis  contract  exceeds  ten  years. 


314  THE    KICHES    or    MEXICO 

The  Federal  law  alone  can  raotlify  and  restrict  the  civil 
rights  enjoyed  by  foreigners.  But  owing  to  the  principle 
of  international  reciprocity  foreigners  are  subject  to  the 
same  disabilities  in  the  Republic  as  the  laws  of  their  coun- 
tries impose  upon  Mexicans  who  reside  abroad  in  theirs. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  provisions  of  the  civil  codes  and  the 
regulations  of  the  district  regarding  this  matter  have  the 
same  force  as  Federal  laws  and  are  obligatory  throughout 
the  whole  of  Mexico. 

Foreigners  can  without  losing  their  original  nationality 
occu{)y  houses  with  all  due  legal  effect.  The  ownershij), 
change  or  loss  of  house  property  are  regulated  by  the  laws 
of  Mexico. 

When  the  suspension  of  personal  guarantees  has  been 
declared  in  the  terms  laid  down  in  Art.  29  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, foreigners  ecjually  with  Mexicans  are  subject  to  the 
provisions  of  the  law  which  decrees  the  suspension  unless 
they  are  especially  exce})ted  by  treaty. 

Foreigners  are  bound  to  contribute  to  the  public  expenses 
in  the  manner  which  the  laws  direct,  and  to  obey  and  respect 
the  institutions,  laws  and  authorities  of  the  country  and  to 
submit  themselves  to  the  judgments  and  sentences  of  the 
courts  without  the  power  to  have  recourse  to  means 
other  than  those  which  the  laws  grant  to  Mexicans.  They 
are  allowed  to  make  an  appeal  to  diplomatic  means, only 
when  justice  has  been  denied  to  them, or  wilfully  retarded 
in  its  administration, and  after  they  have  uselessly  exhausted 
all  the  ordinary  means  appointed  by  law,  and  then  they 
must  appeal  in  the  manner  laid  down  by  international 
law. 

Foreigners  do  not  enjoy  the  political  rights  which  belong 
only  to  Mexican  citizens.  Therefore  they  cannot  vote  nor 
be  voted  for  in  any  popular  election  for  any  j)ositiou 
whether    it    be  a  political   one,   or  in   the   .\rniy,   Navy  or 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  315 

National  Guard.  Neither  can  they  form  associations  to 
treat  about  the  political  affairs  of  the  country  nor  exercise 
the  right  of  petition  in  such  matters.  These  regulations, 
however,  do  not  interfere  with  what  is  laid  down  in  Arts. 
1st,  number  XII.  and  19th  of  the  above-mentioned  law  of 
1886. 

Foreigners  are  exempt  from  military  service.  Those 
who  own  houses,  however,  are  obliged  to  undertake  the 
duty  of  police,  wlien  it  is  a  question  of  the  security  of  prop- 
erty and  of  the  preservation  of  order  in  the  place  in  which 
their  houses  are.  Foreigners  who  later  took  part  in  the 
civil  dissensions  of  the  country  may  be  expelled  from  its 
territory  as  pernicious  foreigners  who  have  subjected  them- 
selves to  the  laws  of  the  country  by  the  crimes  they  have 
been  guilty  of.  Their  rights  and  duties  are  regulated 
during  the  time  the  war  lasts  in  accordance  with  the  law  of 
nations  and  with  a  due  regard  to  treaties. 

As  the  laws  regarding  the  enrollment  of  foreigners  have 
been  repealed  the  minister  of  Foreign  affairs  is  the  only  one 
who  can  issue  certificates  of  any  particular  nationality  to 
foreigners  citizenship  in  his  supposed  country  but  they  do 
not  exclude  proof  to  the  contrary.  The  final  and  definite 
proof  of  a  particular  nationality  is  given  before  competent 
tribunals  and  in  the  manner  which  the  laws  and  treaties 
determine. 

The  law  already  cited  of  May,  1886,  does  not  grant  to 
foreigners  the  rights  denied  to  them  by  the  law  of  nations 
or  by  the  treaties  and  legislation  in  force  in  Mexico. 


Immigratory  Movement. 

III.  The  foreign  immigration  to  the  Republic  has  been 
until  now  of  small    consideration,  notwithstanding  it  has 


316 


THE    KICHES    OF   MEXICO 


been  increasing  continuously,   as  will  be  seen  by  the  fol- 
lowinsr  table: 


MOVEMENT   OF   PASSENGERS   AT    THE    DIFFERENT  PORTS. 


YEARS. 

PORTS. 

ARRIVALS. 

DEPARTURES. 

IX  FAVOR  OF 
IMJIIGHATION. 

1884. 

(riilf  Ports 

11.365 

4.463 

9.083 
3.892 

Parific  Ports 

Total.... 

15.828 

12.975 

2.853 

1885. 

Gulf  Ports 

1C.162 
4.651 

8.122 
3.911 

Pacific  Ports 

Total 

14.813 

12.033 

2.780 

1886. 

Gulf  Ports 

9.882 
5.933 

7.705 
5.680 

Total 

15.815 

13..^S5 

'>.430 

1887 

Gulf  Ports 

10.7361                   S.M05 

Pacific  Ports 

13.400 

10.431 

Total 

24.136 

18.736 

5.400 

Gulf  Pons... 
Pacific  Ports. 


Total. 


13.648 
13.033 


26.681 


10.651 
11.961 


22.612 


4 .  069 


1889. 


Gulf  Ports... 
Pacific  Ports . 


Total. 


17.974 
12.918 


.SO.  892: 


12.628 
12.920 


25.548 


6.344 


roil    SIX    YEARS. 


Gulf  Pons. .. 
Pacific  Ports. 


73.7671 
54.3981 


56.494| 

48.795 


Grand  Total |      128.1651 


105.289 


22.876 


General  movement 233.454 

Annual  average 38.909 


AND   ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


317 


The  under   mentioned  countries  have  contributed  to  the 
immigratory  movement  as  follows: 


1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 


Spain 


3,026 
2,005 
1,847 
2,270 
2,654 
3,909 


DEPARTURES 

DIFFE 

In  favor 

1,719 

1,307 

1,479 

526 

1,424 

423 

1,408 

867 

1,764|           890| 

2,548 

1,361 

Total 


15,711 


10,337        5,374 


1884. 
1885. 
.1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 


United  States 


1,304 
1,297 
1,179 
5,805 
4,291 
3,987 


1,373 
967 
1,300 
4,152 
4,067 
4,133 


330 

1,653 
224 


69 
121 


146 


Total 


17,863 


15,992 


2,207 


336 


1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 


Enerland 


234 

238 
229 
386 
569 
726 


188 

46 

175 

63 

171 

58! 

119 

267j 

264 

305 

415 

311, 

Total 


2,381' 


1,332 


1,050 


1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 


France 


619 
362 
509 
761 
783 
758 


547 
362 
476 
460 
671 
671 


72 

33 
301 
112 

87 


Total 


3,792 


3,187 


605 


318 


THK    HICIIES    OF    MEXICO 


'arrivals  departures 


1SS4 Germany 

1885 ♦' 

18811 " 

1887 ;  " 

1888 «' 

1889 1  *' 


352 
307 
280 

453 
477 
682 


378 
262 
285 
296 
300 
531 


DIKKKKEXCK 

In  favor  Against 


45 


157 
177 
151; 


26 


Total 


2,551 


2,052 


530; 


31 


1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889- 


Italv 


392 

620 

216 

237 

283 

311 

216 

223 

469 

357 

386 

294 

112j 

92 


228 
21 
28 


Total 


1,962 


2,042 


2041 


284 


18S4. 

1885. 

1886. 

1887 

1888. 

1889. 


Various 

Nations 


230 
269 
216 
386 
702 
1,496 


168 

62 

191 

78 

181 

35 

401 

410 

292 

900 

506 

15 


( 

1 

Total 

3,299 

2,251 

1,063 

15 

Grand  Total 

. .  t        47  560 

37,193 

11,033 

666 

General  movement 

In  favor  of  the  immigration. 
Annual  average 


.84,753 

.10,:?67 
.    1,727 


Frcm  a  comparison  of  the  two  totals  corresponding  to 
the  general  movement,  may  bo  deduced  the  nun)ber  of 
Mexicans  arriving  and  leaving  the  Kcpuhlic,  which,  in 
.six  yeais,  amounted  to  148,701, 

In  the  preceding  table  w«  have  only  ct)nsidered  the 
movement  of  travelers  entering  through  the  ports  of  the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  319 

Pacific  and  the  Gulf  for  the  reason  that  we  have  not  suffi- 
cient data  with  which  to  estimate  the  immigration  which 
enters  through  the  frontiers  of  the  United  States  ^nd  which, 
we  are  satisfied,  wouhi  exceed  greatly  that  of  any  other 
countr3^ 

After  having  perused  the  foregoing  regarding  foreign 
immigration,  its  insufficiency,  apparently  inexplicable,  will 
at  once  be  noted,  considering  the  elements  of  wealth  which 
Mexico  possesses,  —  sufficient  to  form  a  prosperous  nation 
of  60,000,000  inhabitants. 

From  within  a  few  years  subsequent  to  the  declaration 
of  Independence,  as  has  been  seen,  our  statesmen,  pre- 
occupied with  that  idea,  have  endeavored  by  every  possible 
means  to  attract  to  our  shores  a  large  foreign  immigration, 
as  if  to  accomplish  this  object,  good  will  and  laws  more  or 
less  liberal  would  only  be  necessary.  This  has  been  a 
lamentable  error,  which  has  cost  Mexico  a  large  amount  of 
money,  and  which  has  only  served  to  lessen  us  in  the 
esteem  of  foreign  nations.  Every  colonist  who  has  re- 
turned to  his  native  land  a  victim  of  our  deception,  has, 
naturally,  become  a  defamer  of  the  Republic,  and,  de- 
ceived, the  greater  portion  of  the  colonists  attracted  to 
Mexico  by  means  of  deceptions  practiced,  or  by  a 
stipend  wasted,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  by  avaricious 
contractors,  or  by  both  causes,  have  been  compelled  to 
return;  during  the  first  period,  because  the  picture  pre- 
sented by  the  nation,  turbulent  and  ravaged  by  the  politi- 
casters,  was  not  the  most  inviting  for  working  people ; 
and,  recently,  because  notwithstanding  the  peace  and 
morality  attending  the  administration  which  we  have  en- 
joyed during  the  past  seventeen  years,  rarely,  indeed,  has 
artificial  colonization  given  good  results.  The  colonist, 
circumscribed  and  compromised,  to  work  his  determined 
length  of  time  under  fixed  conditions,  has  never  been  satis- 
tied;    he  ends   by   comparing  his  condition  with  that  of  a 


320  TUE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

slave  or  prisoner,  at  least.  This  is  what  experience  teaches 
us. 

Now,  thjen,  we  have  no  right,  as  yet,  to  expect  a  spon- 
taneous and  numerous  colonization  of  laborinjr  classes 
while  we  are  unable  to  offer  good  wages  and  profitable 
lands.  The  inequality  which  exists  between  the  wages  paid 
on  our  northern  frontier  and  those  of  the  Southern  Ameri- 
can States,  causes  a  large  number  of  persons  to  emigrate  to 
that  country,  to  the  great  injury  of  our  "  hacendados." 
But  the  evil  is  not  a  permanent  one.  In  brief,  with  our 
systems  of  cultivation  and  irrigation  modernized,  our  Mex- 
ican farmers  and  mining  companies  would  be  enabled  to 
pay  bigh  wages,  and  the  immigration  from  Europe,  which 
is  at  present  unfavorable  to  us,  would  find  its  way  to  our 
country,  more  particularly  by  reason  of  the  active  hosti- 
lity which  the  United  States  of  America,  whose  population 
is  already  sufficiently  dense,  has  shown  towards  European 
immigration,  after  havingr  closed  its  doors  to  the  Chinese. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  and  responsive  to  an  increase  in 
wages,  the  voluntary  immigration  from  the  Antilles  has 
begun  to  make  itself  felt  in  the  Peninsula  of  Yucatan. 

The  State  of  Chiapas,  which  is  making  prodigious  strides 
forward,  will  soon  make  urgent  demand  for  a  large  num- 
ber of  hands,  will  increase  its  wages,  and  the  laboring 
classes  will  hasten  en  masse  to  that  })rivilogcd  territory  ; 
and  as  many  more  will  come  from  the  frontiers  and  coasts, 
to  the  central  tablelands  throughout  the  whole  extension 
of  the  Republic. 

It  is  only  necessary  that  the  proper  period  of  time  shall 
elapse,  in  order  that  this  evolution  may  be  accomplished. 
There  is  much  to  be  hoped  for  from  spontaneous  immi- 
gration ;  but  very  little,  or  nothing,  from  the  systems  of 
artificial  colonization  which  have  been  employed  up  to  the 
present,  with  great  waste  of  the  nntion's  money. 

Apropos  of  the  colonization  ami  utilization  of  indigenous 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  321 

labor,  the  eminent  statesman,  Mr.  Matias  Eomero,  makes 
the  following  statement : 

"  We  have  an  indigenous  population  of  pure  race,  which 
probably  exceeds  the  half  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Eepub- 
lic,  or,  say  more  than  six  millions.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
Indians  have  preserved,  with  very  slight  modifications, 
the  customs  which  they  had  when,  some  four  hundred 
years  since,  America  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  and 
remain  in  a  state  of  almost  complete  isolation,  relying  upon 
themselves,  as  far  as  possible,  to  meet  their  petty  require- 
ments ;  so  that  they  consume  what  they  themselves  produce 
and  produce  but  little  for  exportation,  therefore  that  from 
this  point  of  view,  the  Indians  represent  no  factor  in  our 
public  wealth. 

The  duty  of  the  Government  is  to  civilize  those  of  our 
fellow-citizens  whom  they  find  in  this  condition ;  place 
them  in  contact  with  the  rest  of  the  country  and  with  the 
civilized  world ;  make  them  producers  and  consumers  of 
national  and  foreign  merchandise;  educate  them,  teach  them 
at  least  the  Spanish  language,  to  read  and  write  ;  and  when 
this  has  been  accomplished,  and  when  the  Indians,  until  now 
disinherited,  are  made  participants  in  the  advantages  and 
comforts  of  civilization,  we  shall  have  effected,  if  I  may  so 
state,  the  transportation  to  our  country  of  millions  of 
colonists,  without  the  cost  and  inconvenience  of  bringing 
here  a  foreign  population,  and  being  compelled  to  assimilate 
it  with  our  own." 

COLONIES. 

IV.  The  political  revolutions  which  were  rife  for  so  many 
years  in  Mexico  rendered  completely  unsuccessful  the  first 
efforts  which  were  made  at  foreign  colonization.  A  like 
fate  befall  all  the  endeavors  made  previous  to  the  Rev- 
olution of  Tuxtepec,  which  was  the  turning  point  of  the 

21 


322  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

course  of  political  upheavals  and  which  inaugurated  an  era 
of  peace,  industry  and  material  prosperity. 

The  triumph  of  the  Revolution  and  the  coming  to  the 
front  of  practical  men  made  a  complete  change  in  the 
political  and  economical  aspect  of  the  Republic.  The 
people  were  now  tired  of  revolutions,  their  own  chosen  men 
were  guiding  their  destinies  and  these  men  pointed  out  to 
them  new  paths  along  which  they  might  not  hesitate  to 
advance  with  steady,  puce.  The  thoughts  and  judgments 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  Mexicans  had  to  undergo  a  radical 
change  and  was  necessary  to  make  them  understand  that 
the  high  road  of  labor  was  the  way  to  reach  wealth  and 
material  prosperity. 

The  work  has  been  slow,  perhaps,  but  nevertheless  steady 
and  progressive. 

Peace  being  once  firmly  established  it  w^as  necessary  to 
reorganize  the  Public  Exchequer,  and  this  task  was  no  less 
important  than  the  previous  one.  So  difficult  indeed  was 
it  that  it  required  great  efforts  and  it  was  found  necessary 
to  intrust  it  to  an  excei)tionally  clever  financier  who  should 
possess  a  vast  knowledge  of  the  science  of  finance  and  at 
the  same  time  an  exquisite  tact  so  as  to  1)ring  into  harmony 
complicated  combinations  and  to  undert;ike  with  any  chance 
of  success  the  reorganization  of  the  Mexican  Finances  which 
in  1885  had  arrived  at  the  last  stage  of  confusion,  as  had 
been  seen  elsewhere.* 

Scarcely  had  the  peace  of  the  country  been  secured  when 
it  became  one  of  the  first  cares  of  the  Rulers  of  the  new 
era  to  promote  European  immigration.  With  this  object 
eighteen  contracts  were  entered  into,  their  dates  extending 
from  the  12th  of  January,  1878,  when  a  contract  was  made  by 
the  Colonization  ScMTctaryship  with  C.  Guillcnuo  Andrado, 
who  represented  the  Mexican,  Agricultural,  Industrial  and 


Treasury  Dept."  %  IV. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  323 

Colonizing  Company  of  the  lands  of  Colorado  tiU  the  7th 
of  June,  1882.  Of  these  contracts  six  had  at  the  latter  day 
fallen  into  desuetude  and  nine  were  still  pending  execution  ; 
the  only  ones  that  were  carried  out  were  those  of  Messieurs 
Rovatti  and  Francisco  Rizzo.  In  order  to  attend  to  the 
thorough  establishment  of  the  colonists  who  according  to 
agreement  were  to  arrive  in  the  Republic,  the  Colonization 
Secretaryship  dictated  the  necessary  arrangements  for  ac- 
quiring lands  suitable  for  colonization,  and  with  this  view  the 
sum  of  $169,988  was  laid  out  in  buying  the  farms  of  Mazate- 
pec,  Chipiloe,  Tenamaxtla  and  the  lands  of  Settles,  in  Pu- 
ebla,  those  of  Ojo  de  Leon  in  San  LuisPotosi;  and  those  of 
Aldama  and  Nativitas  which  are  close  to  those  of  the  Agricul- 
tural School  of  the  Capital.  All  these  lands  together  cover 
an  extent  of  2,245,802  acres. 

In  addition  to  these  tracts  and  by  virtue  of  permission 
granted  by  law  on  the  31st  of  May,  1857,  the  Colonization 
Secretaryship  acquired  others  whose  extent  is  163,642,400 
acres  situatedin  the  fertile  region  of  theTehuantepec  Isthmus 
and  in  the  island  of  Tiburon  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
States  of  Morelos  and  Guerrero. 

The  surveying  and  boundary  operations  undertaken  on 
behalf  of  the  Colonization  Secretaryship  in  the  Table  of  Met- 
laltoyuca  and  the  operations  to  be  undertaken  in  virtue  of  the 
contracts  in  the  States  of  Tamaulipas,  Coahuiia  and  Chi- 
huahua, in  the  islands  of  St.  Stephen  and  Ciari  in  the  lands 
of  Champoton  in  Campeche,  considerably  increased  the 
amount  of  lands  available  for  colonizing  purposes.  The 
results  were  not  so  good  as  were  expected  owing  to  the 
contractors  breaking  off  their  engagements,  but  notwith- 
standing this  the  efforts  of  the  Government  were  not  entirely 
fruitless. 

The  first  colony  was  established  in  the  healthy  and  fruit- 
ful lands  of  Huatusco.  The  colonists  arrived  at  Veracruz 
on    the    19th    of    October,    1881,    on    board   the   steamer 


324  TUE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

*'  Atlaiitico  "  having  been  sent  out  by  the  firm  of  Rovatti 
&  Co.  of  Leghorn  virtue  of  their  first  contract.  They 
were  received  at  the  port  and  on  the  following  day  were 
taken  on  the  Mexican  railway  to  Orizaba  and  from  thence 
they  proceeded  to  the  Colony,  where  they  arrived  on  the  3rd 
of  November  of  the  same  year.  At  Orizaba  they  were  re- 
ceived by  a  deputy  from  the  Colonization  Secretaryship  and 
comfortably  lodged  in  an  extensive  building.  The  Coloniza- 
tion Secretary  deeming  his  presence  in  the  colony  necessary 
went  thither  along  with  the  principal  of  that  section  of 
affairs  at  the  end  of  October  and  at  once  set  about  arrang- 
ing the  means  for  surveying  and  measuring  out  the  lands 
and  for  immediately  installing  the  colonists,  and  establish- 
injr  the  administrative  order  which  had  to  be  observed  in 
the  future  by  them.  The  1st  colonists  who  arrived  at 
Huatusco  under  the  conduct  of  Mr.  Juan  B.  Ochoa,  En- 
gineer, were  423  in  number,  a  few  families  having  stayed  at 
Orizaba.  Thus  was  founded  and  established  the  first 
colony,  namely,  "  Manuel  Gonzalez,"  as  it  was  immediately 
styled. 

On  the  27th  of  January,  1882,  there  came  to  Veracruz 
in  the  steamship  "Casus"  193  Italians,  made  up  of  53 
families.  These,  together  with  85  Mexicans,  were  on 
their  road  to  the  farms  of  Barreto  &  Temilpan,  where 
they  formed  the  colony  which  took  the  name  "  Porfirio 
Diaz." 

On  lands  belonging  to  the  farm  of  Temilpa  there  were 
established  with  Mexican  families  and  on  the  same  basis  as 
the  colony  "  Porfirio  Diaz"  the  following  towns:  '*  San 
Vicente  Juarez,"  "San  Rafael  Zaragoza "  and  "San 
Pablo  Hidalgo." 

The  third  colony,  which  was  established  on  the  estate  of 
Mazatcpcc,  in  the  State  of  Puebla,  was  called  "  Carlos 
Pacheco."  It  was  formed  of  a  hundred  Italian  families 
who  were  sent  out  as  colonists  in  the   Steamer  "  Mexico  " 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  325 

on  the  25th  of  February,  1882,  by  Messrs.  Rovatti  &  Pizzo. 
The  colony  was  made  up  of  428  persons  of  whom  384 
were  Milanese  and  44  natives  of  Mexico, 

Near  this  colony  and  adjoining  the  townlands  of  Tetela 
the  Colonization  Secretaryship  acquired  other  lands  of  a 
cool  and  healthy  temperature,  of  great  productiveness  and 
having  an  abundant  supply  of  water.  Here  the  colonists  of 
Mazatepec  settled  because  they  wished  to  change  their 
climate  and  devote  themselves  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
ordinary  vine  and  the  rancio,  which  is  there  produced  in 
great  abundance. 

The  families  that  remained  in  Orizaba  with  the  intention 
of  going  to  the  State  of  San  Luis  Potosi  numbered  410 
persons.  They  were  taken  to  the  fertile  lands  on  the 
estate  "  Ojo  de  Leon  "  where  they  were  started  in  the  best 
possible  way,  being  at  once  given  lots  and  supplied  with 
tools  and  agricultural  instruments  for  clearing  the  land, 
building  houses,  etc.  This  colony  was  named  *'  Diez 
Gutierrez."  On  the  25th  of  September  the  last  band  of 
Italian  colonists  sent  in  accordance  with  the  Rizzo  contract 
arrived  at  Veracruz.  They  numbered  in  all  656  persons, 
consisting  of  58  families,  which  were  distributed  as  follows: 
38,  with  a  total  of  424  persons,  were  sent  to  the  estates  of 
Chipiloc  and  Tenamaxtla;  19,  with  219  individuals,  went  to 
Huatusco  whilst  one  of  13  persons  was  dispatched  to  the 
lands  of  the  Agricultural  School. 

On  the  30th  of  September  there  came  to  the  estate  of 
Chipiloc  38  families,  which  along  with  28  persons  of  both 
sexes  from  the  colony  of  *'  Porfirio  Diaz  "  and  a  Mexican 
famil}^  composed  of  4  persons  made  up  the  colony  called 
"Fernandez  Leal."  At  that  time  it  consisted  of  510 
persons. 

Quite  close  to  the  capital,  as  has  been  already  said,  the 
lands  of  Nativitas  and  Aldama  were  bought  and  annexed  to 
the  agricultural  school  with  the  view  of  forming  a  small 


326 


THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 


model  colony  out  of  selected  persons  and  especially  of 
persons  chosen  from  the  first  band  of  Italians. 

Twenty-six  families,  numbering  in  all  124  persons,  were 
selected  to  form  this  colony. 

In  later  years,  others  were  established,  the  most  notable 
and  at  the  same  time  the  ones  that  have  made  greater 
progress,  being  the  socialist  colony  of  Topolobampo,  which 
was  organized  in  conformity  with  a  contract  siirned  with  an 
American  subject,  Mr.  Albert  Owen,  and  the  mormon  settle- 
ments established  in  the  State  of  Chihuahua.  The  follow- 
m<y  is  a  table  of  the  colonies  established  inthe  Republic,  the 
number  of  colonists,  in  1892,  their  sex  and  nationality:  — 


NAXn'ES   OF   SOUTHERN   MKXICO. 
Mex.  A.  T.  D.  Los  SigloB. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


327 


cl 


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328  THE  laciiES  of  Mexico 

From  1878  to  1891,  thirty-three  concessions  of  land 
ifor  colonization  purposes  have  been  granted.  Of  theise 
bine  fell  into  desuetude,  two  were  withdrawn  and  the  follow- 
ing are  still  in  force. 


Date  of  Contract  or 
Authorization.  Concessionary.  States. 

January  7,  1882 Mexican  Meridional  Railroad 

Company Puebla    Veracruz 

Oaxaca      and 
Chiapas. 

June  6,  1882 Rafael  Portas  Martinez Yucatan    and    Cam- 

peche. 

July  10,  1883 Manuel  Campos  &  Co Yucatan    and    Cam- 

peche. 

November  9,  1883 Ygnacio    Gomez    del    Campo 

&  Co Chihuahua. 

December  27,  1883... Daniel  Levy 

September  29,  1884. . .  Ybarra  &  Co.  of  M^rida. .    

July  17,  1884 Daniel  Levy 

July  21,  1884 Luis  Huller  &  Co Lower  California  and 

Lsla  de  Cedros. 

November  3,  1884 Efren  Vaca Chihuahua. 

October  8,  1886 W.     Brodsick    and    Roberto 

Simon Coahuila. 

June  4,  1887 Louis  Huller 

March  3,  1887 . .  Louis  Arantave  &  Co Chihuahua. 

August  19,  1887 Ponciauo  Falomlr Chihuahua. 

August  19,  1887 Maclovio  Gamboa Chihuahua. 

December  22,  1887 . . .  Lascurain  &  Co Veracruz. 

June  2,  1888 Agriculture  Co.  of  Tlahualilo.Durango. 

June  20,  1888 M.   Ramirez  Varela  and  3os6 

Mora Oaxaca,  Veracruz. 

Tabasco  and  Chiapas. 

June  4,  1888 Louis  Huller Cliihuahua. 

Juno  10,  1888 Octavio  Conde Tamaulipas. 

August  24,  1889 Jesus  Alraada Siualoa. 

July  11,  1891 Louis  R.  Brewer Chiapas. 

November  19,  1891.  ..Carlos  Wehner Chiapas. 


IGNACIO  MAPwISCAL. 
Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


329 


BOUNDARY  AND  COLONIZATION  CONTRACTS  MADE  BT  THE  COL- 
ONIZATION  SECRETARYSHIP  FROM  THE  YEAR  1881  TO  1891. 

Date  of  Contract  or  .  otntpc 

Authorization.  Concessionary.  biaies. 

August  31,  1881 Eduardo  Clay  Wise  &  Co Chiapas. 

May  21,  1881 Plutarco  Ornelas Tamaulipas  Coahuila 

and  Chihuahua. 

May  20,  1882 Guillermo  Andrade Gulf  of  Cortes. 

March  31,  1883 C.  Flores  and  S.  C.  Hale,&  Co.Lower  California. 

September  27,  1883 . .  Federico  Mendez  Rivas Tabasco  and  Chiapas. 

March  1,  1884 Ireneo  Paz  &  Co Lower  California. 

June  23,  1884 Adolfo  Bulle .Souora    and    Lower 

California. 

July  11,  1884 Antonio  Azisnzulo  &  Co Chihuahua   and  Du- 

rango. 

August  9,  1884 Justo    Sierra  and    Fernando 

Zetina 

September  17,  1884... Manuel    Orellana     Nogueras 

&  Co Guanajuato. 

May  28,  1885 Alberto  Sanchez  &  Co Isla  de    Guadalupe. 

June  20, 1885 Luis  Huller Isla  del  Socorro. 

Au'-ust  10,  1885 Comp.Mex.  Colonizadora  ...Islas   "Angel   de    la 

Guarda"   Tiburon 
and   San  Esteban. 

January  21,  1886 Manuel  Vallejo Michoacan. 

April  28,  1886 Carlos  Quaglia  &  Co Queretaro. 

July  21, 1886 Ramon  G.  Pena  &  Co Jalisco. 

July  26,  1886 Manuel  S.  Vila Jalisco. 

October  6,  1886 Jose  M.  Herrera Queretaro. 

July  22,  1886 Comp.  del  Ferrocarril  de  Texas. Sinaloa,        Sonora, 

Chihuahua        and 
Coahuila. 

March  5,  1888 Jose  M.  Herrera Queretaro. 

March  17,  1888 Comp.  Mex.  Agricola,  Indus- 
trial y  Colonizadora Terrenos      de      Rio 

Colorado. 

September  27,  1889... Mariano  Garcia Durango. 

October  28    1889 Faustino  Mnez  &  Co Yucatan. 

February  28,  1890. ...  Alberto  K.  Owen Sinaloa,  Souora  Chi- 
huahua and  Coa- 
huila. 

April  24, 1891 Pedro  Hinojosa Nuevo    Leon. 

April  30,  1891 J.  Gonzalez  Trevino Coahuila. 


330  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXIC© 


PURCHASE  AND  SALE  CONTRACTS  OF  UNCULTIVATED  LANDS 
AND  CONTRACTS  OF  COLONIZATION  OF  SAME  MADE  BY  THE 
FOMENTATION    SECRETARYSHIP   FROM    1885    TO    1891. 

Date  of  Contract  or 
Authorization.  Concessionaries.  States. 

August  28,  1885 Louis  Garcia  Teruel Chihuahua. 

August  28,  188") Mariano  Garcia Chihuahua. 

May  22,  1886.. E.  Schnetz  &  Co Chihuahua. 

July  10, 188(5 Simon  Sarlat Tabasco. 

October  29,  1887 E.  Schnetz  &  Co 

March  8,  1888  Guillermio  Andrade Lower  California. 

August  17,  1888 Jos6  M  Garcia Chihuahua. 

September  14, 1888... "La  Mexicana  '  Comp  '  de  mi 

nas  y  terrenos  en  Mexico. 

August  17, 1888 Jos6  M  Garcia Chihuahua. 

February  4,  1889 Eulalio  Vela Veracruz. 

July  25,  1889 Andres  Horcasitas Durango. 

June  13,  1890 Emilio  Velasco Guerrero. 

July  30,  1890 L.  Garcia  Teruel Tabasco. 

August  22,  1890   Carlos  Carrant Sonora  and  Sinaloa. 

September  12, 1890. . .Joaquin  Casasus Federal  District  and 

several  States. 

January  7,  1891 Louis  Robles  Campeche. 

January  7,  1891 Louis  Gayon Tepic  Territory. 

July  24,  1891 Lorenzo  Torrez . , Sonora. 

July  28,  1891 JosC'  Valeuzuela Jalisco  and  Zacate- 

cas. 
November  14,  1891 .  •  •  Arluro  Reeves Puebla. 


UNOCCUPIED  GOVERNMENT  LANDS. 

V.  Wo  find  in  the  lust  report  of  the  President  of  the 
Republic,  the  following  data  regarding  unoccupied  lands: 

«'  At  the  close  of  1885,  there  were  some  20,000,000 
acres  suital)lc  for  colonization,  and  this  amount  was  in- 
creased in  1886  by  7,000,000  hectares  in  the  State  of  Chihua- 
hua and  Lower  California. 

In  1888  the  surveyed  hinds  reached  the  sum  of  33,811,- 
524  hectares  of  which  amount   ll,03r),407  belonired  to  tho 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


331 


colonization  companies  ;  the  superficies  disposed  of  amounted 
to  12,642,446,  leaving  some  10,132,671  to  be  distributed 
by  the  Government.  To  this  must  be  added  3,635,388 
hectares  covered  by  1,504  titles  adjudicated  to  private  indi- 
viduals. 

In  1892  there  had  been  surveyed  16,820,141  hectares; 
of  the  11,213,427  which  belonged  to  the  nation,  there  were 
adjudicated  to  private  parties  and  colonization  companies 
1,607,439  hectares,  the  sum  realized  from  the  sale  of 
which  amounted  to  $493,882.49,  payable  in  bonds  of  the 
Public  Debt.  There  still  pertained  to  the  Government 
15,513,865  free  hectares.  The  settlements  effected  with 
the  proprietors  of  lands,  thetitle  to  which  had  been  usurped, 
produced  some  $1,280,328.44  invested  in  titles,  and  this 
superfice  increased  to  the  sum  of  4,222,901  hectares.  In 
many  States  there  were  granted  to  the  Indians  4,560  pro- 
prietory titles  of  lands,  measuring  180,109  hectares. 
There  have  also  been  distributed  among  the  Yaquis  and 
Mayos  many  lots  for  cultivation  aud  habitations." 


KAFT   ON   USUMACINTA   RIVER. 
Mex.  A.  T.  D.  Los  Siglos. 


BOOK    III. 

SOCIAL  ELEMENTS. 

(333) 


CHAPTER  I. 


RELIGION. 


I.  The  moral,  intellectual,  spiritual  and  material  develop- 
ment of  a  nation  as  well  as  an  individual  depends  largely 
upon  religious  or  philosophical  teaching,  according  as  that 
teaching  is  best  calculated  to  develop  the  individual  powers 
of  mind.  All  religious  beliefs  have  been  formulated  by 
some  of  the  most  active  minds  of  the  race  in  the  past,  and 
are,  perhaps,  as  good  as  the  race  were  for  the  time  able  to 
comprehend.  Without  criticising  the  religious  teachings  of 
the  day,  we  will  simply  present  them  as  history  furnishes 
the  details. 


CATHOLIC  RELIGION. 

II.  The  clergy  in  Mexico  have  attained  an  immense  power 
through  their  public  influence  and  riches.  To  the  end  of 
the  VIII  century  it  had  reached  the  highest  point  of  opul- 
ence and  influence,  and  enjoyed  very  great  incomes.  The 
following  are  the  emoluments  of  the  principal  ecclesiastical 
Dignitaries  in  New  Spain. 

The  Archbishop  of  Mexico  received  per  year  $130,000; 
the  Bishop  of  Puebla,  $110,000;  of  Valladolid,  $100,000; 
of  Guadalajara,  $90,000;  of  Durango,  $35,000;  of  Mon- 
terrey, $30,000  ;  of  Yucatan,  $20,000  ;  of  Oaxaca,  $18,000. 

(335) 


33G  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

The  one  of  Soiioni  received  in  lieu  of  a  stated  salary, 
rentals  from  real  estate  to  the  amount  of  $(J,000  \)ov 
year,  all  of  which  makes  a  sum  total  of  $539,000  per 
annum. 

The  property  of  the  Mexican  clergy,  calculated  by  the 
prices  that  prevailed  when  the  landed  property  was  in 
its  rustic  and  urban  state,  and  without  including  the 
secular  revenues  of  the  Jesuits,  has  been  comi)uted  at 
$3,000,000,  and  the  income  which  they  derived  from 
chaplaincy  taxes  or  rents,  stocks,  endowments,  amounted 
to  $44,000,000,  making  with  the  previously  mentioned 
revenues  from  various  sources,  a  grand  total  of  $17,- 
539,000. 

The  number  of  parishes  were  1,073,  and  the  ecclesiastics 
occupied  in  them  2,300.  The  convents  numbered  264;  the 
missions  157,  and  the  Mexican  clergy,  including  not  only 
professed,  but  lay-brothers  and  lay-friars,  amounted  in  the 
year  1803  to  «,000  individuals. 

The  first  Mexican  Constitution  of  1824,  established 
officially  the  Apostolic  Roman  Catholic  religion,  excluding 
all  others,  and  this  right  was  coiilirmcd  by  the  majority  of 
the  constitutions  which  followed.  The  tirst  severe  blow 
which  the  clergy  of  Mexico  received  was  occasioned  by  the 
decree  of  May  31,  185G,  which  introduced  a  legal  suspen- 
sion of  the  ecclesiastical  properties  in  Puebla,  and  was 
based  on  public  opinion,  which  accused  the  clergy  of  having- 
instigated  the  civil  war,  employing  for  that  purpose  their 
enormous  wealth.  The  economical  political  question  was 
raised  in  this  manner:  the  clergy  were  a  powerful  enemy 
which  was  necessary  to  suppress  at  any  cost,  being  regarded 
as  an  clement  of  perpetual  discord;  it  was  indispensable  to 
protect  private  property  against  the  enormous  taxes  which 
were  imposed  upon  it  by  the  church.  The  following  is  a 
statistical  table  of  the  rustic  and  urban  landed  properties 


AND   ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  337 

belonging  to  the  ecclesiastical  corporations  in  the  Federal 
District  in  the  year  1856: 

MEXICO. 

Hoases.  Value. 

Convents 1,268  $11,439,739  00 

Congregations 62  458,326  00 

Cathedral,  Sagrario  and  Archbishopric 55  574,307  00 

Parishes , 24  49,828  00 

Nuestra  Seiiora  de  los  Angeles 1  170  00 

Sacristy  of  la  Merced 2 

Recorder  of  San  Diego 1  5,000  00 

The  holy  places  of  Jerusalem 9  33,693  50 

Brotherhoods 39  263,430  00 

Archconf raternities 51  469,348  23 

Pious  works 46  337,570  00 

Chaplaincy  Tribunal 15  41,774  00 

1,573  $13,678,209  73 

Religious  Colleges 158      1,187,253  35 

Religious  Schools 4  7,224  00 

162     $1,194,477.35 

.      TLALPAN. 

Convents 3  4,147  00 

Chaplaincy  Tribunal 1  7,669  00 

4         $11,816.00 

TACUBAYA. 

The  Parish 2  2,500  00 

Pious  "Works 2  8,300  00 

Brotherhood  of  San  Joaquin "       1  4,000  00 

Collegiata  of  Guadalupe 13  54,090  00 

18  $68,890.00 

RUSTIC   PROPERTY  IN   TLALPAN. 

Convents 6  76,881  00 

Brotherhoods 4  11,833  00 

Total. 1,767  $15,042,107  08 

There    were  also  several  establishments  for  instruction 
and   charities,  which   belonged   equally  to    the   Civil  and 

99 


338  THE   RICHES   OF   MEXICO. 

Ecclesiastical  Corporations,  and  which  numbered  155 
houses,  representing  a  value  of  $1,584,479.  In  like  manner 
the  capitals  of  both  corporations,  consisting  of  74  rustic 
and  urban  houses,  represented  a  sum  total  of  $104,912.06. 

RESUMED. 

Ecclesiastical  corporations  and  educational  estab- 
lishments  1,767  $15,042,107  08 

Beneficiaries  of  both  corporations 155  1,584,479  00 

Capitals  of  both  corporations 74  104,912  06 

Total 1,996      $16,731,498  14 

After  that  followed  the  law  of  "  Desamortization," 
referring  to  the  recovery  of  properties  from  the  church, 
and  which  was  promulgated  on  June  25,  1856.  The  fol- 
lowing was  the  general  object  of  the  Government  in  pass- 
ing the  law,  viz.  :  In  order  to  fully  appreciate  this  law  it 
must  DC  considered  under  two  aspects  :  1st.  As  a  resolution 
to  suppress  and  nullify  the  effects  of  one  of  the  econom- 
ical errors  which  had  contributed  to  maintain  values  of 
property  in  Mexico  iu  a  stationary  condition  and  prevented 
the  development  of  aits  and  industries  ;  2d.  As  an  indis- 
pensable means  of  removing  the  principal  obstacle  which 
existed  to  the  establishment  of  a  uniform  system  of  taxa- 
tion based  on  scientific  principles;  mobilizing  landed  prop- 
erty which  is  the  natural  basis  of  all  good  systems  of 
taxation. 

Under  the  first  aspect  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  fix  the 
attention  upon  the  benefits  which  this  measure  would 
immediately  confirm  upon  the  tenants  or  lessees  of  prop- 
erties which  formerly  belonged  to  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
corporations,  as  also  the  groat  good  which  would  result  to 
society  iu  general,  by  placing  in  circulation  .the  enormous 
amount  of  landed  estates  which  were  in  a  stagnated  condi- 
tion, and  finally  by  the  impulse  which  would  be  given  to  the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  339 

arts  and  industries  through  the  continued  improvements 
which  would  be  made  in  all  the  properties  newly  transferred 
from  the  moment  in  which  they  became  private  properties, 
already  the  object  of  sale  and  general  exchange.  From 
the  second  point  of  view  aside  from  the  revenues 
which  the  National  Exchequer  would  at  once  derive,  due 
to  the  impulse  which  would  be  given  to  transfers  of 
ownership,  which  by  virtue  of  this  law,  would  have  to  be 
legally  verified,  it  proposed  the  formation  of  a  safe  basis 
for  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  taxes,  the  products 
of  which,  without  overloading  the  various  sources  of 
public  wealth,  would  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  necessities 
of  the  Government,  and  permit  it  to  abolish  at  once  and 
forever  all  those  forms  of  taxation  which,  like  a  dismal 
inheritance  of  the  colonial  period,  were  preserved  to  the 
present  day,  paralyzing  commerce,  and  doing  great  injury 
to  agriculture,  the  arts,  industries  and  to  the  entire  nation. 
(Decree  which  accompanied  the  law.) 

The  law  of  nationalization  of  July  12th,  1859,  which 
perfected  in  all  its  details  the  former  one,  states,  among 
ether  things,  in  its  explanatory  portion,  as  follows: 

"  That  the  principal  motive  of  the  present  war,  promoted 
and  sustained  by  the  clergy,  is  to  withdraw  itself  from 
dependence  to  civil  authority.     *      *     * 

"  That  the  money  given  by  Catholics  to  the  church  with 
a  pious  object  was  utilized  for  this  purpose,  sustaining  and 
augmenting  each  day  the  fratricidal  strife  which  was  carried 
on  under  the  disguise  of  legitimate  authority  and  denying  the 
right  of  the  Republic  to  construct  itself  otherwise  than  as 
suited  their  convenience  and  pleasure. 

"  That  the  various  efforts  which  had  been  made  up  to  the 
present  moment  to  terminate  a  war  which  was  ruinous  to 
the  Republic,  having  been  utterly  iiiefiectual,  to  allow  its 
sworn  enemies  to  longer  retain  the  resources  or  means 
which  they  so  seriously  misused,  would  be  to  become  their 


340  THE   RICHES    OF    MEXICO. 

accomplice,  and  that  it  is  an  imperative  duty  to  put  into 
execution  every  means  which  might  be  employed  to  save 
the  Republic  from  destruction." 

By  the  provisions  of  this  law,  all  properties  of  every 
description,  which  were  held  by  the  clergy,  both  sec- 
ular and  regular,  under  various  titles,  reverted  to 
the  Governmeut,  without  distinction,  as  to  class  of  title, 
richt  or  shares  which  it  consisted  of,  nor  of  the  name  and 
application  which  it  might  have.  In  order  to  protect  the 
new  proprietors  of  nationalized  properties,  it  became  nec- 
essary to  make  certain  provisions  which  would  guarantee 
them  the  quiet  and  peaceful  possession  of  their  holdings, 
without  being  subject  to  revision,  except,  of  course,  in  case 
of  fraudulent  sale. 

The  economical  results  of  the  former  laws  were:  1st,  the 
subdivision  of  the  property  ;  2cl,  the  increase  of  the  public 
wealth  in  circulation. 

In  order  to  form  an  idea  of  the  sales  which  M^ere  made, 
it  will  suffice  to  state  that  by  December  10th,  1861,  the 
transactions  in  nationalized  property  had  reached  the  enor- 
mous sum  of  $16,553,147. 


LEGAL   inSPOSITIOXS    CONCERNING    RELIGIONS. 

III.  By  virtue  of  the  law  of  July  12th,  1859,  which  was 
elevated  to  a  constitutional  rank  by  that  of  the  December 
14th,  1874,  religious  toleration  was  allowed  and,  as  a  natural 
consequence,  the  church  was  separated  from  the  State. 
This  law  guarantees  the  exercise  of  all  forms  of  religious 
worship,  and  punishes  only  those  forms  and  ceremonies 
which  may  be  considered  as  offensive  or  contrary  to  the 
intent  and  meaning  of  the  penal  laws. 

The  ministers  of  any  religion  do  not,  by  reason  of  their 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  341 

character  or  profession,  enjoy  any  privilege  which  would 
distinguish  them  from  other  citizens;  nor  are  they  sub- 
jected to  greater  prohibitions  than  those  designed  in  the 
Law  and  the  Constitution. 

Religious  instruction  and  the  practice  of  any  religion  is 
prohibited  in  the  National  Establishments  of  the  Repub- 
lic; they  teach  morality  without  alluding  to  any  special 
religion. 

Kotwithstanding  this,  persons  residing  in  the  public 
establishments  are  entitled  to  practice  the  religion  they 
profess,  and  are  even  allowed  to  receive  in  the  establish- 
ments in  question,  in  urgent  cases,  the  spiritual  comforts 
of  their  religion. 

No  religious  ceremony  is  permitted  to  be  performed  in 
public  but  only  in  the  interior  of  the  churches.  The  meet- 
ings of  the  churches  must  be  public  and  will  therefore  be 
under  vigilance  of  the  police,  while  the  authorities  may, 
when  the  exigences  of  the  case  require  it,  exercise  their 
functions  in  such  temples. 

Members  of  any  religious  denomination  are  prohibited 
from  wearing  any  special  dress  to  distinguish  them  from 
other  citizens. 

Religious  institutions  may  be  organized  as  their  members 
may  elect,  but  such  organization  shall  have  no  legal  recog- 
nition from  the  State  than  that  of. giving  personaiitj'  to  the 
superiors  of  same  in  each  locality  in  order  to  defend  their 
rio-hts.  No  minister  of  any  religion  can,  however,  by 
virtue  of  his  character  and  title,  appear  officially  to  the 
authorities. 

The  Government  does  not  recognize  any  monastic  orders, 
and  will  not  allow  their  establishment  whatever  may  be 
their  purpose.  The  secret  orders  of  this  kmd  will  be  con- 
sidered as  illicit  bodies,  and  the  authorities  may  disperse 
them  when  necessary ;  while  the  superiors  of  same  will  be 


342  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

con.^iclored  as  trespassers  against  the  individual  welfare, 
in  conformity  with  Article  993  of  the  Penal  Code  of  the 
District,  which  is  in  force  in  the  whole  Republic. 

By  monastic  orders  is  understood  those  religious  associa- 
tions whose  members  live  under  certain  regulations  pecu- 
liarly their  own,  by  means  of  vows  or  promises,  temporary 
or  perpetual  and  subject  to  one  or  more  superiors,  even 
though  each  and  every  individual  of  the  order  should 
possess  a  distinct  habitation. 

The  rights  of  religious  bodies,  as  provided  by  the  law, 
and  represented  by  their  superior  in  each  locality,  are  as 
follows:  I.  The  right  of  petition.  II.  Of  ownership  in 
the  temples  acquired  according  to  law,  which  right  will  be 
governed  by  the  particular  laws  of  the  State  in  which  the 
edifices  are  located,  even  though  the  association  be  extinct 
in  each  locality,  or  when  the  property  has  been  abandoned. 

III.  To  receive  charities  or  bequests  which,  however,  can 
never  consist  of  real  estate,  acknowledgments  in  same, 
nor  in  obligations  or  promises  for  future  fulfillment,  be  it 
under  pretense  of  testamentary  institution,  donation, 
legacy,  or  any  other  character  of  obligation  of  the 
kind,  as    all    such    will    be    considered    null    and    void. 

IV.  The  right  to  receive  the^e  alms  in  the  interior  of  the 
churches  through  the  medium  of  the  collectors  whom  they 
may  appoint,  with  the  uqderstandiug  that  beyond  these  the 
appointment  of  all  such  collectors  is  absolutcl}'  prohibited, 
those  appointing  being  included  in  Art.  413  of  the  Penal 
Code  of  the  District,  which  article  has  been  declared  eflect- 
ivo  throughout  the  Republic. 

In  addition,  they  may  have  direct  dominion  over  the 
temples  which,  in  conformity  with  the  law  of  July  12,  1859, 
have  been  nationalized  and  which  were  placed  at  the  service 
of  the  Catholics,  as  also  those  which  having  been  poste- 
riorly ceded  to  any  religious  institution,  continue  to  belong 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  343 

to  the  nation,  but  its  exclusive  use,  preservation  and  im- 
provement, shall  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  religious  institu- 
tion to  whom  they  have  been  ceded,  while  no  decree  of 
consolidation  of  the  property  has  been  made. 


Economical  Organization. 

rV.  The  first  principal  church  was  founded  in  the  Penins- 
ula of  Yucatan,  by  Francisco  Hernandez  de  Cordova,  in  the 
year  1517,  under  the  name  of  '<  Nuestra  Senora  de  Ids 
Remedios  "  (Our  Lady  of  Succor).  On  September,  1830, 
the  first  Archbishopric  was  erected,  whose  see  was  in  the 
capital  of  the  viceregency  ;  the  one  of  Michoacan,  with  its 
seat  Morelia  was  built  August  18th,  1536  ;  the  one  of 
Guadalajara,  July  31st,  1548;  and  finally  when  His  Excel- 
lency, Archbishop  Pelagio  Antonio  de  Labastida  y  Davalos 
died,  they  founded  the  Archbishoprics  of  Oaxaca, 
Monterey  and  Durango. 

The  actual  oro^anization  is  as  follows: 


Archbishoprick  of  Mexico;  of  the  bishopricks  of  Puebla,  Tulanclngo, 
Chilapa,  Veracruz  and  Cuernavaca.  Archbishoprick  of  Guadalajara  of 
the  bishopricks  of  Colima,  Zacatecas  and  Tepic.  Archbishoprick  of 
Michoacan ;  of  the  bishopricks  of  Queretaro,  Leon  and  Zamora.  Arch- 
bishoprick of  Oaxaca;  of  the  bishopricks  Yucatan,  Chiapas,  Tabasco  and 
Tehuantepec.  Archbishoprick  of  Monterrey;  of  the  bishopricks  of  S. 
Luis  Potosi  and  Tamaulipas.  Archbishoprick  of  Durango;  of  the 
bishopricks  of  Chihuahqa,  Sonora  and  Sinaloa.  Apostolic  vicarage  of 
Lower  California. 


According  to  the  official  data  published  by  the  Secretary 
of  Public  Works,  the  number  of  vicarages  and  parishes, 
churches  and  chapels  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  Repub- 


344  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

lie  in  1889,  not  including  those  recentl}'^  created,  was  as 
follows  : 

vicarages         Churches 
and  Parishes,  and  Chapels.  Total. 

Archbishoprick  of  Mexico 203           1,654  1,857 

Bishoprick  of  Puebla 187            2,513  2,700 

"       "   Oaxaca 134            1,000  1,134 

"       "   Chiapas .*.         40               500  540 

"       "   Yucatan 84                234  318 

"      "   Tabasco 12               100  112 

"      •'   Tulaneingo 70               400  470 

"       "   Veracruz 64               100  104 

"       *'   Chilapa 75               379  454 

"      "■  Tamaulipas 39                 41  80 

Archbishoprick  of  Michoacan 58               300  358 

Bishop  of  San  Luis  Potosi 33               171  204 

'<       «   Queretaro 29               107  136 

"       "Leon 23                100  123 

«       «'   Zamora 36               100  136 

Archbishoprick  of  Guadalajara 106              376  482 

Bishop  of  Durango 45               250  295 

<'       "Linares 36               135  171 

"       "   Sonora 55               200  255 

"       «'   Zacatecas 20               100  120 

Apostolic  Vicarage  of  Lower  California 3  3 

Totals 1,349           8,763  10,112 

PROTESTANT  RELIGION. 

ABSTRACT  FROM  THE  REPORT  OF  THE  STATISTICS  OF 
PROTESTANT  MISSIONS  IN  MEXICO  1888  (REVISED  TO 
1892). 

I.     The  Field. 

Total  of  Prot- 
estant Missions. 

V.  Number  of  centers  of  operation 87 

"       of  congregations 469 


AND    ITS   INSTITUTIONS. 


345 


II.     The   Worhers. 

Number  of  ordained  missionaries 59 

"        of  unordained  missionaries  (ttiat  is,  unordained  men 

and  ■wives  of  ordained  and  assistant  missionaries) 61 

"       of  foreign  lady  teachers 67 

Whole  number  of  foreign  workers 177 

Number  of  native  preachers  ordained Ill 

"        of  native  preachers  unordained 161 

"        of  native  helpers 177 

**        of  other  native  helpers 63 

Total  number  of  native  vporkers 512 

Grand  total  of  native  and  foreign  workers 689 

III.     The  Churches. 

Number  of  churches  organized 385 

"       of  communicants 16,250 

"       of  probable  adherents - 49,512 

IV.   The  Schools. 

Number  of  training  and  theological  schools 7 

"       of  students  in  same 88 

"^      of  boarding  schools  and  orphanages 23 

"       of  pupils  in  same 715 

'•       of  common  schools 164 

"       of  pupils  in  same 6,533 

Total  numbers  under  instruction  7,336 

Number  of  Sunday-schools 347 

"       of  Sunday-school  teachers  and  officers 6,947 

"       of  Sunday-school  scholars 9,814 

Total  membership  of  Sunday-schools 10,508 

V.  Publishing  Interests. 

Number  of  publishing  houses 6 

"       of  papers  issued 11 

Pages  of  all  Kinds  of  religious  literature  issued  since  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  religious  press 75,197,886 


346  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

VI.  Properties. 

Number  of  church  buildings 118 

Approximate  value  of  same  (including  furniture) $391,675 

Number  of  parsonages 45 

Approximate  value  of  same  including  society  furniture $158,835 

Number  of  educational  buildings 31 

Approximate  value  of  same  includiug  furniture  and  utensils  $250,940 

Value  of  publishing  outfits $36,850 

Total  value  of  all  missionary  property $844,300 

Tatals VM  $1,088,000 

From  the  work  entitled  "  Mexico,"  published  in  Wash- 
ington by  the  "Bureau  of  the  American  Republics," 
the  following  is  quoted  :  "  The  first  movement  towards  the 
formation  of  a  Christian  church,  distinct  from  the  Roman 
Catholic,  which  came  to  a  successful  issue,  was  begun  in 
the  country  in  18()8,  when  aid  was  asked  of  Protestants 
in  the  United  States.  The  aid  being  afforded,  there 
was  organized  in  1869,  in  the  city, of  Mexico,  what  was 
called  "The  Church  of  Jesus  in  Mexico,"  which,  how- 
ever, was  not  the  result  of  missionary  work  so  much  as 
**  a  spontaneous  movement  originating  among  members  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church"  in  the  country,  who  desired 
"a greater  liberty  of  conscience,  a  purer  worship,  and  a 
better  church  organization." 

The  Rev.  Henry  C.  Riley,  a  clergyman  of  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States,  went  to  Mex- 
ico, in  1869,  and  entered  heartily  into  the  work  of  "The 
Church  of  Jesus."  In  the  same  year  the  great  church  of 
San  Francisco,  as  well  as  the  cl]ai)el  of  lialvanera,  was 
purchased  by  the  Protestants,  and  services  were  conducted 
therein  in  Spanish  and  English. 

The  existing  main  church  of  San  Francisco  was  dedi- 
cated December  8,  1716,  but  the  original  monastery  and 
church,  whose  site  this  edifice  occupies,  was  built 
about     1607    oil     lauds    which     had     formerlv     been    the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  347 

garden  and  wild  beast  house  of  the  kings  of  Tenoch- 
titlan.  Cortez  provided  funds  for  the  building  of  the 
first  church,  and  material  was  secured  in  the  hewn 
stone  from  the  steps  of  the  great  Teocalli  (the 
Aztec  temple).  In  this  church  Cortez  heard  masses,  and 
for  a  time  his  bones  found  a  resting-place.  Here  the 
Spanish  viceroys,  through  the  centuries,  took  part  in  the 
great  festivals  of  the  church.  The  Te  Deum  in  celebration 
of  Mexican  independence  was  first  echoed  by  its  walls. 
Here  the  Liberator,  Augustin  Iturbide,  worshiped,  and 
here  his  funeral  services  were  held  when  he  died;  and  here, 
to-day,  Protestant  services  are  held. 

Three  churches  now  stand  on  portions  of  the  land  covered 
by  what  were  known  formerly  as  the  seven  churches  of  San 
Francisco.  They  are  the  Church  of  Jesus  ;  Christ  Church, 
where  the  services  of  the  Church  of  England  are  held  ;  and 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  the  Trinity. 

A  short  resume  of  the  American  Church  Missionary 
Society  is  given  in  the  following  lines,  penned  by  its 
General  Secretary,  under  date  of  February  12,  1891 : 

In  1873  our  society  entered  upon  work  in  Mexico.  We  found  there  an 
organization  entitled  "The  Church  of  Jesus."  The  Rev.  Dr.  Riley,  a 
presbyter  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  acted  as  our  missionary 
there.  Two  very  large  buildings,  formerly  Roman  Catholic  churches, 
were  purchased  at  an  expense  of  850,000,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  during 
the  five  years  that  we  continued  in  charge  of  the  work,  over  883,000  were 
expended  in  the  support  of  missionaries.  More  than  3,000  persons  con- 
nected themselves  with  this  Protestant  movement,  and  in  1873  our 
society  deemed  it  expedient  to  transfer  this  work  to  the  Board  of  Missions 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  After  that  date,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Riley 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  but  subsequently  re- 
tired, and  the  board  withdrew  its  support.  At  present  the  work  is  in 
the  care  of  the  presiding  Bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  is  con- 
ducted by  the  Rev.  William  B.  Gordon,  resident  presbyter. 

An  orphanage  for  girls  has  long  been  sustained  by  Mrs.  Hooker, 
formerly  of  Philadelphia,  and  an  effort  is  now  being  made  to  erect  a 
building  for  this  orphanage  at  a  cost  of  $20,000. 

The    Protestant    Episcopal    missions    and  churches  are 


348  THE   RICHES   OF   MEXICO 

many,  and  the  congregations,  especially  in  the  city  of 
Mexico,  generally  large  and  flourishing.  This  church 
maintains,  besides  the  edifices  mentioned,  a  chapel  at  Sec- 
ond Independencia  street,  No.  3,  Mexico  City,  and  many 
congregations  and  schools  in  other  parts  of  the  Eepublic, 
six  congregations  and  two  schools  being  in  Hidalgo,  and 
four  congregations  and  two  schools  in  Morelos. 

The  Presbyterian  Mission  was  begun  in  1872,  and  central 
stations  are  maintained  in  the  city  of  Mexico,  Zacatecas, 
San  Luis  Potosi,  Jerez,  Saltillo,  and  Lerdo,  attached  to 
which  arc  numerous  out-stations.  All  of  these  congrega- 
tions and  schools  are  in  a  flourishing  condition. 

The  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  began  work  in  Mexico 
in  1873,  and  has  made  most  rapid  strides.  The  parts  of 
the  Republic  -svhere  the  work  is  carried  on  is  divided  into 
four  districts,  the  Central,  Coast,  Northern,  and  Puebla, 
and  into  twelve  circuits  and  tw^enty-eight  stations.  Accord- 
ino-  to  the  statistics  published  in  the  seventy-second  annual 
report  of  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  for  the  year  1890,  the  strength  of  the  mission 
was:  Number  of  appointments,  101:  foreign  missionaries, 
9;  assistant  missionaries,  8;  foreign  missionaries  of  Wom- 
en's Foreign  Missionary  Society,  7;  native  workers  of 
the  same,  35;  native  ordained  preachers,  10;  native  unor- 
dained  preachers,  30;  native  teachers,  25;  foreign  teachers, 
3;  otfier  helpers,  38;  adherents,  6,106;  churches,  and 
chapels,  15,  estimated  to  be  worth  $91,600  ;  halls  and  other 
places  of  worship,  26;  parsonages  or  "  homes"  15;  esti- 
mated value  of  these,  $100,900;  high  schools,  3;  number 
of  scholars  attending,  115;  number  of  teachers,  9;  number 
of  other  day  schools,  42;  number  of  other  da}'^  scholars, 
2,725;  number  of  Sabbath  schools,  47;  number  of 
Sabbath  scholars,  8,641  ;  value  of  orphanages,  schools, 
hospitals,  book  rooms,  etc.,  $111,310;  volumes  printed 
during   the    year,     170,330;    pages    printed    during  the 


AND   ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  349 

year,  2,637,000.  The  average  attendance  on  Sunday 
worship  was  2,305.  There  was  a  gain  during  the 
year  of  28  congregations,  and  a  net  increase  of  394 
members  and  probationers  ;  349  conversions  are  reported, 
against  120  the  year  before;  6  day  schools  were  added  to 
the  list,  gaining  an  increase  of  526  scholars  ;  three  more 
Sabbath  schools  and  274  more  Sabbath  school  scholars 
appear  among  the  figures  for  the  year.  Three  new  churches 
were  built  and  the  church  properties  were  increased  $7,600 
in  value  over  the  preceding  year,  most  of  which  amount 
was  raised  in  the  country.  There  were  collected  for  self- 
support  $9,146,  against  $6,708  the  year  before. 

The  Baptist  churches  organized  in  Mexico  are  as  follows : 
Under  the  Home  Mission  Society  of  New  York,  a  church 
each  at  Monterey,  Salinas,  ^Garcia,  Santa  Rosa,  Monte- 
raorelos,  Ebanos,  Cadereyta,  Apodaca,  in  the  State  of 
Nuevo  Leon,  and  one  in  the  city  of  Mexico.  Under  the 
Southern  Baptist  Convention  there  are  churches  at  the 
following  places  :  Saltillo,  Patos,  Progreso,  Muzquiz,  and 
Juarez,  in  the  State  of  Coahuila.  In  1886  there  were  thir- 
teen ordained  Baptist  ministers  and  five  schools,  which  have 
considerably  increased  in  number  since  that  date. 

The  American  Friends  Society  has  established  missions 
at  Matamoros,  City  of  Mexico,  and  other  places. 


350  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 


CHAPTER  II. 

PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION. 

I.  Before  we  enlarge  upon  those  late  labors  of  the  Gov- 
ernment which  have  been  dedicated  to  the  spread  and  im- 
provement of  popular  instruction,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
quote,  at  the  outset,  the  authorized  exposition  by  the  re- 
nowned lawyer  and  Secretary  of  Justice  and  Public  In- 
struction, Hon.  D.  Joaquin  Baranda,  bearing  upon  this  same 
important  branch  of  the  Administration,  and  to  enter  into 
his  memorial  on  the  question,  presented  to  Congress  on  the 
30th  of  November,  1888.     It  reads  as  follows: 

"  The  studies  of  the  Sciences  and  of  the  Arts,  as  also  the 
education  of  children,  were  not  elements  unknown  to  the 
ancient  people  of  Anahuac,  and  to  this,  amongst  others, 
bears  testimony  that  grand  monument  of  porphyry  and  its 
mystic  emblems,  in  which  the  Aztecs  read  the  prc^gress  of 
time  during  the  day  and  year,  and  observed  the  changes  of 
the  seasons,  as  also  the  palaces  of  Mitla  and  Palenque, 
which,  in  their  admirable  ruins,  reveal  the  secrets  of  the 
architecture  of  those  times,  bear  mute  testimony.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  also  known  that  there  existed 
establishments  of  instruction  for  those  who  dedicated  them- 
selves to  the  preisthood  and  for  those  who  followed  the 
career  of  arms.  But  all  these  establishments  closed  their 
doors  to  the  mass  of  the  people,  placing  their  teachings 
within  the  reach  of  the  privileged  class  only,  in  accordance 
with  the  degree  of  culture  realized  in  that  social  system. 

After  the  Conquest,  the  colony  continued  in  its  devel- 
opment of  three  hundred  years,  a  favorable  motion  of  the 
metropolis,  and  its  instruction  recommended    first  to    the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  351 

secular  and  regular  clergy,  suffered  the  same  effects  which 
illustrious  thinkers  had  become  aware  of  beyond  the  ocean. 
But,  when  the  chains  of  dependency  had  been  broken,  the  new 
nation,  urged  on  by  the  sentiment  of  freedom  and  by  the 
lights  generously  spread  by  the  genius  of  civilization  of  our 
country,  exerted  itself  to  profit  by  the  advantages  offered 
by  the  new  political  existence,  carrying  into  practice  the 
exercise  of  the  rights  which,  with  iron  hand,  its  domiiia- 
tors  had  limited.  The  enterprise  had  to  be  large  and  toil- 
some, and  that  an  idea  might  be  had  of  its  value,  I  shall 
examine,  if  only  rapidly,  the  most  important  organic  laws 
which,  bearing  upon  public  instruction,  have  been  issued 
since  the  time  of  the  independence,  thus  giving  strength 
to  the  appreciation  of  the  advances  which,  in  the  progress 
of  years  and  by  virtue  of  the  change  which  had  taken 
place  upon  the  political  field  of  the  country,  it  has  been 
possible  to  effect  up  to  our  time. 

The  first  law  appeared  on  the  30th  of  October,  1833,  and 
was  compiled  by  D.  Jose  Luis  Mora.  This  law  contained 
conspicuous  dispositions,  its  author  having  been  inspired 
by  the  examples  furnished  by  enlightened  countries.  The 
decrees  of  the  24th  and  26th  of  the  said  month  completed, 
with  efficacious  prescription,  the  plan  of  study  to  which 
the  teaching  in  the  Federal  District  should  be  subject. 

But  in  those  days  of  exaltation  among  the  political 
parties,  when  the  spirit  of  exclusiveness  raised  mighty 
impediments  to  all  liberal  ideas  in  favor  of  the  people,  it 
happened  that  as  the  first  of  these  decrees,  which,  in  itself, 
was  an  open  emanation  of  the  liberal  principles,  authorized 
the  expropriation  in  favor  of  the  Public  Schools  of  some 
landed  property  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  the  revolt 
reacted  with  terrible  consequences  against  the  established 
government,  and  said  laws  were  buried  under  the  ruins  of 
the  routed  party. 

By  disposition  of  July  31st,  1834,  published  by  edict  on 


352  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

the  2(1  of  August  following,  several  urgent  measures  were 
dictated  in  reference  to  the  matter,  and  the  Executive  was 
given  a  term  for  the  publication  of  the  Plan  of  Study,  which 
was  published,  with  the  character  of  provisory,  on  the  17th 
of  November  of  the  same  year. 

Naturall}^  owing  to  the  change  which  had  taken  place  in 
the  politics  of  the  country,  the  former  dispositions  were 
mostly  left  without  effect,  and  the  property  was  restored 
to  the  clergy  while  the  University  that  had  been  suppressed 
was  re-established. 

During  nine  years  of  observance,  in  which  the  necessities 
of  the  Kepublic  were  growing,  and  with  them  the  want  of 
widening  public  education,  the  defect  of  that  plan  and  the 
convenience  to  fill  the  vacancies  which  were  found  in  its 
precepts,  made  itself  preceptible.  The  Government  then, 
invested  with  extraordinary  authority,  published  a  new  plan 
of  studies  on  the  18th  of  August,  1843,  producing  uni- 
formity in  the  teaching,  and  establishing  a  gradual  system 
in  the  matters  of  the  classes, —  an  object  of  the  greatest 
importance,  upon  which  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  the 
result  of  scholastic  labors. 

By  decree  of  November  8th,  of  the  said  year,  a  principle 
of  notorious  transcendency  was  conquered  in  favor  of  the 
future  of  public  instruction,  inasmuch  as  all  the  establish- 
ments sustained  by  the  rents  of  the  exchequer  were  declared 
national.  Thus  placed  at  the  head  of  instruction,  the 
Government  found  itself  in  greater  aptitude  to  dictate  the 
necessary  and  convenient  measures  toward  the  improve- 
ment of  this  important  branch,  and  to  exercise  an  immediate 
vigilance  over  all  matters  connected  therewith.  As  an  effect 
of  the  Central  System,  it  was  provided  for  in  said  plan  that 
it  should  be  observed  in  all  the  departments,  the  bases  for 
the  formation  of  the  rcsi^cctivo  ordinances  were  re-cstab- 
lishe.d,  as  were  also  lixcd  the  attributions  and  duties  of  the 
Directive  Committee. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  353 

The  re-establishment  of  the  Constitution  of  1824  pro- 
clamed  in  the  year  1846,  made  itself  felt  immediately  after- 
wards in  everything  relating  to  public  instruction,  inasmuch 
as  by  the  decree  of  October  23d  of  the  said  year,  it  was 
ordered  that  the  States  should  recover  their  rights  above 
the  instruction,  which  the  centralism  had  taken  away  from 
them,  and  little  by  little  the  confusion  occasioned  by  the 
civil  disturbances  was  repaired  in  this  branch  so  important 
to  the  public. 

On  the  19th  of  December,  1854,  a  new  plan  of  studies 
was  promulgated,  which  plan,  profiting  by  the  ideas  that 
caused  the  triumph  of  the  revolution  of  1852,  revealed  cer- 
tain anti-democratic  sentiments.  But  the  plan  did  not  re- 
main in  vigor  for  more  than  a  few  months.  After  the  lapse 
of  that  time,  a  decree  was  issued  on  the  22d  of  September, 
1855,  according  to  which  the  law  of  August  18th,  1843, 
again  went  into  force. 

When  the  Department  of  Justice  was  in  the  hands  of  that 
eminent  jurist,  Mr.  Ignacio  Ramirez,  another  law  bearing 
upon  public  instruction  was  promulgated  on  the  15th  of 
April,  1861,  which  law  was  true  to  the  spirit  of  the  one 
published  in  1833.  But,  in  consequence  of  the  difficult 
situation  of  the  country,  brought  about  by  the  foreign  war, 
the  law  could  not  obtain  a  practical  application. 

On  the  re-establishment  in  1869  in  the  city  of  Mexico  of 
the  Constitutional  Government,  the  branch  of  public  in- 
struction, so  important,  found  itself  in  a  most  abandoned 
condition,  so  much  so  that  a  vigorous  and  efficacious  re- 
organization became  necessary.  The  plants  of  secondary 
instruction,  which,  by  the  change  in  the  political  system  of 
the  country  had  been  closed,  demanded  their  timely  re- 
establishment,  in  order  that  the  pupils  could  continue  their 
interrupted  studies  and  could  be  examined. 

To  this  end,  the  executive  dictated,  in  the  first  place, 
the  convenient  measures  bearing  upon  the  re-opening   of 

23 


354  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

the  classes  and  improvement  of  the  primary  schools,  ban- 
ishing from  the  methods  of  teaching  such  ideas  as  might 
not  be  in  harmony  with  republican  principles. 

In  order  to  procure  the  definite  arrangement  of  instruc- 
tion, the  organic  law  was  published  that  same  year  on  the 
2d  of  December,  its  by-law  coming  into  force  on  the  24th 
of  January,  1868." 

Since  the  year  1861,  the  education  of  woman  had  re- 
ceived serious  consideration  with  a  view  of  widening  the 
field  of  her  usefulness,  but  the  law  of  1867,  still  more 
liberal,  placed  within  her  reach  powerful  elements  of  illus- 
tration by  means  of  which  she  might  elevate  herself  to 
the  position  occupied  by  the  sex  in  civilized  society.  With 
the  idea  of  correcting  the  defects  which  were  found  to  exist 
upon  a  practical  test  of  the  law  in  question,  the  Executive 
was  authorized  by  the  decree  of  January  14th,  1869,  which 
designated  the  bases  which  should  serve  as  a  standard  in 
modifying  these  provisions. 

Inspired  and  governed  by  the  lessons  which  experience 
had  taught,  and  with  the  object  of  giving  a  greater  im- 
petus to  instruction,  extending  especially  the  privi- 
lege of  primary  education  to  all  social  classes,  the 
Executive  in  question  promulgated  the  organic  law  of 
May  15th,  1869,  which  amended  the  law  of  December, 
1867  ;  and  on  November  9th  of  the  same  year  (1869)  the 
necessary  rules  and  regulations  were  adopted.  True  it  is 
that  these  were  not  the  only  changes  which  should  have 
been  made  in  the  law  alluded  to;  but,  it  soon  became  nec- 
essary to  resort  to  the  most  imperative  measure,  anil  make 
the  instruction  obligatory  in  character.  In  fact,  article  6 
of  the  law  in  question  made  primary  instruction  obligatory 
in  the  Federal  District  and  Territories,  in  conformity  with 
the  requirements  of  the  regulations  adopted.  A  beginning 
was  made  and  a  principle  established,  but  the  means  for 
obtaining   the   desired   result,   which   calculated   upon   the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  355 

stimulus  which  premiums  and  honorable  distinctions  to  the 
most  diligent  pupils  would  give,  were  not  equal  to  the 
emergency;  and  it  became  necessary  to  establish  a  system 
of  punishment  in  order  to  overcome  the  negligence  of  the 
parents  or  those  intrusted  with  the  education  of  the  chil- 
dren. With  this  end  in  view,  the  Government  presented  a 
plan  on  April  4th,  1873  ;  but  owing  to  unforeseen  obstacles, 
the  legislative  power  was  unable  to  give  it  any  considera- 
tion. 

COMPULSORY  EDUCATION. 

II.  On  the  8th  of  October,  1887,  the  Commission  of 
Public  Instruction  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  presented 
a  project  of  law  treating  of  compulsory  instruction  within 
the  Federal  District  and  territories,  which  project,  after 
mature  discussion  by  both  Chambers,  gave  origin  to  the 
promulgation  of  the  law  of  May  25th,  1888. 

This  law  sanctions  the  doctrine  of  making  obligatory  the 
primary  elements  of  instruction  for  children  of  six  to 
twelve  years  of  age,  gives  free  admission  to  the  official 
primary  schools,  and  orders  the  establishment  in  the 
Federal  District  of  two  schools  for  primary  instruc- 
tion, one  for  boys,  the  other  for  girls,  for,  at  least, 
every  four  thousand  inhabitants,  which  proportion  may  be 
changed  as  far  as  the  territories  of  Tepic  and  Lower 
California  are  concerned.  These  schools  will  be  in  charge 
of  the  local  authorities,  who  shall  take  care  of  the  scholas- 
tic funds  and  shall  appoint  the  directors  and  teachers  from 
among  persons  duly  titled  by  the  official  normal  schools. 

The  scholastic  funds  are  composed  of  the  subventions 
allowed  by  the  General  Government, —  the  sums  destined 
for  the  schools  by  the  Municipal  appropriations, —  the  pro- 
duct of  Municipal  taxes  levied  for  this  special  purpose, — 
the  amount  of  fines  imposed  in  accordance  with  law  and 


356  THE  KicuES  or  Mexico 

their  rogultitious,  as  well  as  the  donations  and  legacies 
destined  for  public  Municipal  instruction. 

In  order  to  carry  into  effect  the  principle  of  compulsory 
instruction,  it  is  ordered  that  persons  who  exercise  paternal 
power,  those  in  charge  of  minors,  and,  in  special  cases,  the 
owners  of  factories,  shops,  plantations  and  ranches,  every 
year  shall  prove  that  the  children  for  whom  they  are 
responsible  receive  or  have  received  the  necessary  primary 
elements  of  instruction.  In  case  of  violation  of  this  order 
they  shall  be  punished  administratively,  with  a  fine  rang- 
ing from  10  cents  to  10  dollars,  or  with  imprisonment  from 
one  to  ten  days. 

The  law  imposed  upon  the  President  the  obligation  of 
organizing  within  one  year  the  official  primary  instruction, 
under  the  terms  therein  stipulated,  but  as  it  was  desired  to 
generalize  its  provisions  in  all  the  States  of  the  Union, 
where  compulsory  primary  instruction  should  be  exacted 
in  a  preferential  way,  said  organization  was  suspended 
until  this  object  had  been  attained. 

In  fact,  the  labors  undertaken  in  support  of  public  in- 
struction throughout  the  country  sufiered  from  lack  of 
cohesion  and  uniformity, —  the  laws  on  the  subject  that 
fixed  the  assignments  and  distribution  of  instruction  were, 
as  a  rule,  different  in  every  State,  and  those  treating  of 
primary  instruction  were  exposed  to  the  changes  and  modi- 
fications which  the  respective  city  councils  saw  fit  to  make. 
This  state  of  affairs  placed  difficulties  in  the  progress  of 
instruction,  as  well  as  causing  injury  to  the  professors  and 
pupils. 

PEDAGOGICAL   CONGRESS. 

III.  In  order  to  eradicate  this  lack  of  government,  and 
with  a  view  to  giving  uniformity  to  the  legislation  and 
scholastic   rejrulations  of   the  States   and  Federal    District 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  357 

and  Territories,  the  Minister  of  Justice  proposed  the 
assemblage  of  a  Congress  of  instruction  by  means  of  the 
circular  of  June  1st,  1889,  inviting  the  Governors  of  the 
States  to  each  appoint  a  representative  to  attend  the  con- 
ference that  was  to  be  held  in  the  Capital  of  Mexico. 

The  principal  points  to  be  submitted  to  the  de- 
liberation of  this  Congress  were:  1st  —  Primary, 
laical  instruction,  compulsory  and  gratuitous.  The 
uniformity  of  this  instruction  was  to  embrace:  the  age 
in  which  children  should  be  received,  — the  classes  that 
are  to  be  taught, — the  progressive  order  of  study, —  the 
number  of  years  that  this  should  last,  and  the  author- 
ized means  of  enforcing  compliance  with  these  rules. 
The  establishment  in  towns  of  small  schools  for  chil- 
dren and  adults,  and  in  the  country  of  rural  schools 
with  traveling  teachers.  2d.  Preparatory  instruction, 
gratuitous  and  voluntary.  The  uniformity  of  this  shall 
comprehend  :  the  studies  which  constitute  such  classes  for 
a  complete  and  rigorous  course,  such  as  the  preparation 
for  all  professions,  the  scientific  distribution  and  order  in 
which  these  shall  be  taught,  programme  and  number  of 
years  which  such  instruction  must  last.  3d.  Professional 
instruction,  voluntary  and  protected  by  the  State.  The 
uniformity  of  this  shall  comprehend:  the  subjects  which 
form  each  course,  —  order  and  method  of  teaching  these, — 
number  of  years  which  such  instruction  shall  last,  —  prac- 
tical professional  programmes  and  rules  to  which  the  pro- 
fessional exammations  shall  be  subjected.  In  order  that 
the  resolutions  of  Congress  might  have  the  desired  effect, 
thev  were  submitted  to  the  classified  regulations  pursuant 
to  the  Federal  Constitution  and  to  those  of  the  individ- 
ual   States  for  their  acceptance  and  compliance. 

To  enable  the  Congress  of  Instruction  to  dispose  of  the 
greatest  number  of  these  data  in  the  course  of  its  opera- 
tions,   the    Governors  were  requested,   by    means  of   the 


358  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

circular  of  October  5th  of  the  same  year,  to  furnish 
statistics  relative  to  the  number  of  pupils,  number  of  es- 
tablishments, total  cost  of  public  instruction,  resources  of 
its  subsistence,  as  well  as  copies  of  the  laws,  regulations, 
methods  and  programmes  in  force  in  their  States,  etc., 
etc. 

On  the  29th  of  the  same  month  a  decree  was  issued  for 
the  Congress,  and  on  the  25th  of  November  a  summary  of 
the  themes  and  programmes  upon  which  the  deliberations 
should  be  based. 

The  Congress  was  installed  on  the  28th  of  the  said 
month,  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  under  the  presidency 
of  Mr.  Baranda,  Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction. 

Its  sessions  were  opened  on  the  following  1st  of  Decem- 
ber, and,  after  four  months,  were  closed  on  the  31st  of 
March,  1890. 

In  its  deliberations,  Congress  took  for  a  basis  the  prob- 
lem of  uniforming  the  national  education,  as  set  forth  in 
the  respective  call,  and  although  it  was  accepted  by  the 
Governors  of  the  States,  still  this  problem  required  a 
proper  definition  and  thorough  discussion,  and  was  finally 
adopted  with  some  insignificant  limitations  due  to  the 
diverse  conditions  of  the  country. 

The  principle  of  obligatory  instruction,  gratuitous  and 
laical,  was  determined,  the  manner  in  which  the  authorities 
of  the  State  should  carry  into  effect  this  obligatory  ele- 
mentary instruction  was  defined,  as  well  as  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  heads  of  families.  The  fulfillment  of  the 
obligation  was  insured  by  means  of  the  penal  sanction,  in 
the  elements  of  which  were  inserted  the  proper  admonitions 
of  fines  and  arrest.  The  subject  of  creating  rural  schools 
with  traveling  teachers,  and  of  infantile  colonies  in  the 
country,  was  discussed  and  approved,  as  well  as  the  estab- 
lishment and  organization  of  the  juvenile  schools  ("  escuelas 
de  i);uvulos  '"),  and  those   for  adults,  aud  the  introduction 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  359 

of  manual  labors  as  an  educational  element  in  the  jniblic 
schools,  ^ith  military  exercises,  etc.,  etc. 

Many  of  the  questions  contained  in  the  summary  com- 
piled by  the  Department  on  the  21st  of  November  were  left 
pending  when  this  first  Congress  came  to  a  close. 

SECOND    CONGRESS    OF    INSTRUCTION. 

In  order  to  continue  and  cement  the  labors  undertaken, 
the  Minister  of  Justice  addressed  another  call  to  the  Gov- 
ernors of  the  States,  under  date  of  June  19th,  1890,  so 
that  said  Governors  should  appoint  their  representatives 
for  the  second  Congress  of  Instruction,  which  was  held  on 
the  1st  of  December  of  the  same  year. 

On  the  31st  of  October,  the  regulations  of  this  Congress 
were  issued,  and  it  was  inaugurated  on  the  29th  of 
November,  beginning  its  sessions  on  the  1st  of  December 
of  the  same  year. 

This  Congress  occupied  itself  preferentially  in  the  solu- 
tion of  the  questions  pending  the  organization  of  the 
primary  schools  and  those  relative  to  the  ones  for  normal 
and  preparatory  studies,  closing  its  sessions  in  March,  1891. 

INSTRUCTION    LAW    IN     FORCE     IN     THE     FEDERAL     DISTRICT. 

After  the  adjournment  of  the  first  Congress  of  Instruc- 
tion, the  Legislative  Power  promulgated  the  law  of  May 
28th,  1890,  authorizing  the  President  to  organize  and  reg- 
ulate primary  instruction  in  the  Federal  District  and 
Territories,  on  the  basis  that  this  instruction  be  uniform, 
laical,  gratuitous  and  compulsory.  In  virtue  thereof,  the 
Executive  issued  the  respective  reglamentary  law  of 
March  21st,  1891,  which  went  into  effect  on  the  following 
7th  of  January. 

Agreeable  to  this  law,  primary  elementary  instruction  is 


360  THE   RICHES   OF   MEXICO 

obligatory  for  children  of  both  sexes  of  from  six  to  twelve 
years  of  age,  and  can  be  acquired  in  any  official  or  pri- 
vate establishment,  or  privately,  —  and,  furthermore,  the 
obligatory  instruction  imparted  in  the  official  schools  shall 
be  gratuitous  and  laical. 

The  programme  of  obligatory  instruction,  which  is 
developed  in  four  years,  is  the  following:  — 

The  practical  duties  of  life  and  civic  instruction.  The 
national  language,  including  reading  and  writing  lessons. 
Arithmetic.  Rudiments  of  physical  and  natural  sciences. 
Practical  notions  of  geometry.  Rudiments  of  geography 
and  the  national  history.  Drawing.  Sketching  of  common 
and  simple  objects.  Singing.  Gymnasium,  and  military 
exercises. 

In  the  girls'  school  the  same  programme  applies,  with  the 
necessary  modifications  in  the  gymnastic  class,  and  adding 
manual  labors  to  be  distributed  as  follows:  — 

1st  Year. —  Embroidery.  Stitchins;.  Hemmino-.  Knit- 
ting  with  wool  and  thread  with  wooden  needles.  2d  Year. — 
Straight  back-stitching.  Knitting  of  designs,  forked  and 
coarse  stitching.  Embroidery  with  colored  threads.  Bud 
stitching.  3d  Year. —  Sewing.  Back-stitching,  reaper 
fashion.  Double  sewing.  Tucking.  Knitting  with  metal 
needles.  Embroidery  on  coarse  stuffs.  4th  Year. — 
Marginal  embroidery.  Simple  fastenings.  Raveling  out. 
Practical  and  simple  ideas  of  the  cutting  of  the  principal 
parts  of  dress. 

When  this  programme  of  compulsory  instruction  cannot 
be  put  inlo  practice,  the  ado})tion  of  the  following  one, 
which  shall  likewise  develope  in  four  years,  will  be  sufficient 
to  comply  with  the  law  : 

Practical  ideas  of  the  duties  of  life.  Civic  instruction 
and  the  country's  history.  The  national  language,  coni- 
l)rising  reading  and  writing  Ics.sons.  Arithmetic.  General 
lessouta.     Gymnastic  games  and  exercises. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  361 

For  the  primary  schools,  the  scholastic  year  consists  of 
ten  months,  commencing  on  the  7th  of  January  and  lasting 
until  the  2d  of  Noveinber,  when  the  classes  shall  be  sus- 
pended to  begin  the  examinations ;  the  scholastic  week 
shall  consist  of  five  days,  counting  from  Monday  till  Fri- 
day ;  the  daily  work  of  the  first  year  must  not  exceed 
4^  hours,  5  hours  in  the  second,  5^  in  the  third,  and  6 
in  the  fourth.  The  time  occupied  in  any  lesson  shall  not 
exceed  20  minutes  in  the  first  year,  25  in  the  second,  thirty 
in  the  third,  and  forty  in  the  fourth.  In  the  time  specified 
for  the  daily  work  is  included  a  half-hour  of  recreation, 
which  the  children  shall  enjoy  in  the  morning  and  after- 
noon. 

It  is  understood  that  in  no  class  of  the  official  or  private 
schools  shall  punishments  be  administered  that  degrade  or 
invalidate  the  children,  and  still  less  any  of  those  prohibited 
by  the  Constitution. 

In  the  elementary  schools,  supported  by  public  funds, 
there  shall  be  a  director  who  may  have  under  his  charo-e  up 
to  fifty  pupils,  an  assistant  being  named  for  every  new 
group  of  fifty  children  who  may  attend  the  establishment. 

In  those  schools  where  there  cannot  be  more  than  one 
teacher,  the  supplementary  programme  before  mentioned 
shall  be  adopted,  and  the  system  of  half  time  shall  be 
employed  in  the  instruction.  These  same  programmes 
and  system  shall  be  used  in  the  mixed  schools,  which  will 
be  opened  in  places,  where,  for  lack  of  funds,  it  is  not 
possible  to  establish  two  schools,  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
boys  may  attend  in  the  morning  and  the  girls  in  the  after- 
noon, or  vice  versa. 

The  half-time  system  consists  in  dividing  into  two  dis- 
tinct groups  the  total  attendance  of  pupils,  so  that  one  of 
these  groups  may  receive  instruction  in  the  morning  and 
the  other  in  the  afternoon,  giving  to  each  group  the 
instruction  detailed  in  the  corresponding  programme. 


362  THE    KICHES    OF   MEXICO 


SUPERIOR    BOARD    OF    PUBLIC    INSTRUCTION. 

The  subjects  appertaining  to  primary  instruction  will  be 
in  charge  of  a  special  body,  called  the  Superior  Board  of 
Primary  Instruction,  which  was  installed  since  the  month  of 
June,  1891.  Before  the  establishment  of  this  Board,  the 
Directive  Board  of  Public  Instruction  enjoyed  the  same 
attributes  in  subjects  of  Primary  Instruction,  in  accordance 
with  the  law  of  the  15th  of  March,  1869. 

Vigilance  committees  exist  in  each  of  the  principal 
wards  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  in  the  District  Prefa- 
ture  as  far  as  each  of  the  municipalities  and  the  territories 
of  Tepic  and  Lower  California  are  concerned.  The  object 
of  these  committees  is  to  see  that  the  law  is  complied  with 
relative  to  the  obligations  of  fiithers,  tutors,  or  others  in 
charsre  of  children  of  scholastic  age. 


PRIZES    TO    THE    PROFESSORS. 

The  professors  of  the  official  schools  who  distinguish 
themselves  for  their  attention  and  painstaking  work,  shall 
receive,  as  a  reward,  at  the  end  of  their  first  ten  years  of 
service,  a  bronze  medal,  a  silver  one  at  the  end  of  twenty 
years,  and  one  of  gold  when  they  shall  have  completed 
thirty  years  of  service,  as  well  as  their  corresponding 
diplomas.  After  thirty  years  of  service,  the  professors 
have  the  right  to  request  a  cessation  of  work,  with  the 
enjoyment  of  their  salary,  which  will  be  doubled  in  the 
event  that  they  choose  to  continue  in  their  employment. 

The  circular  of  May  15,  1888,  has  established  a  premium 
of  $200  and  another  of  $100,  which,  at  the  end  of  each 
scholastic  year,  shall  be  donated  to  the  professors  of  the 
national  jirinjary  schools  who  distinguish  themselves  the 
most   in  the    examination    of  their   pupils,  —  and    another 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  363 

similar  preminm  is  thereby  established  for  the  directors  of 
the  schools  for  girls.  Besides  these,  the  interested  parties 
receive  a  diploma  setting  forth  their  distinction. 


SUPEKIOR   INSTRUCTION  IN   THE  FEDERAL  DISTRICT. 
SCHOOL  OF  MEDICINE. 

IV.  This  School  was  established  in  1768  by  virtue  of  a 
royal  decree.  For  a  long  time  its  home  was  the  old  convent 
of  Belem  ;  afterwards  it  was  united  with  the  college  of  San 
Ildefonso,  which  was  formerly  devoted  to  the  teaching  of 
ecclesiastical  laws  and  sciences.  The  quarrels  which  arose 
between  the  pupils  of  the  two  establishments  caused  the 
school  of  medicine  to  be  removed  to  San  Juan  de  Letran, 
which  devoted  itself  to  the  study  of  Jurisprudence.  In  this 
building  the  School  occupied  an  independent  department 
but  one  which  was  still  too  small,  and  in  consequence  a 
suitable  place  was  given  to  it  by  adding  to  the  school  the 
free  portion  of  the  building  of  San  Hipolito.  There  it 
stayed  till  1853,  when,  owing  to  the  conversion  of  the 
building  which  it  occupied  into  a  barrack,  it  was  found  nec- 
essary to  buy  that  of  the  ex-Inquisition  for  $50,286.  Here 
it  opened  its  classes  in  1854  and  here  is  where  it  now  is. 

The  courses  studied  in  the  establishment  are  Medicine, 
Surgery,  Midwifery  and  Pharmaceutics. 

For  the  year  1893  the  professors  lecture  on  the  foUowino- 
programme  of  studies:  Descriptive  Anatomy,  Histology, 
Elementary  Pharmacy,  Physiology,  Internal  Pathology, 
External  Pathology,  External  Clinics,  Local  Anatomy, 
Internal  Clinics,  Therapeutics,  General  Pathology,  Oper- 
atory  Medicine,  Midwifery,  Hygiene  and  Meteorology, 
Legal  Medicine  and  the  Clinics  of  Miilwifcry. 

For  the  profession  of  a  chemist  and  druggist  the  subjects 


3G4  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

studied  are  :  Pharmacy,  both  theoretical  and  practical,  His- 
tory of  drugs,  chemical  analysis  and  practical  pharma- 
ceutics. 

The  female  pupils  that  stud}^  for  midwives  go  through 
the  classes  of  theoretical  midwifery  and  its  clinics. 

There  are  also  what  are  called  finishing  classes,  namely  : 
Theoretical  and  practical  Ophthalmology,  G3^necology, 
Bacteriology,  Pathological  Anatomy,  and  Pathological 
Histology. 

The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  on  the  college  books  is 
305,  of  whom  279  intend  to  follow  the  profession  of  medical 
surgeons,  13  that  of  chemists  and  druggists,  and  13  of  the 
female  sex  that  of  midwives.  The  Government  estimates 
assign  to  this  School  the  sum  of  $62,388.75  per  annum. 

NATIONAL    MEDICAL    INSTITUTE    OF    MEXICO. 

This  institution  was  founded  by  decree  of  December  18, 
1888,  at  the  initiatory  suggestion  of  the  Department  of 
Colonization  and  Industry,  and  was  formally  opened  on 
July  1st,  1800,  its  purpose  being  the  study  of  the  llora, 
fauna,  climatology  and  medical  geography  of  the  country, 
and  their  practical  application  in  medicine. 

It  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Department  above 
mentioned,  and  is  governed  by  a  faculty  composed  of 
a  Director,  a  Prefect,  Subprefcct,  Secretary,  Assistant 
Secretary  and  a  Treasurer  appointed  by  the  General 
Government. 

The  discharge  of  the  scientific  work  is  under  the  super- 
vision of  five  divisions:  1st,  Natural  Historv;  2nd,  Analy- 
tical Ciicmistr}^;  3rd,  Experimental  Physiology;  4th, 
Clinical  Therapeutics,  and  5tii,  Climatology  and  Medical 
Geography,  which  divisions  have  their  special  departments, 
and  are  provided  with  the  necessary  instruments  and 
utensils. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  3G5 

The  first  division  is  composed  of  three  professors,  who  are 
required  to  be  doctors  or  pharmacists,  an  assistant,  two 
draughtsmen,  a  photographer,  a  dissecting  collector  and  a 
clerk,  and  its  special  objects  are:  the  collection  of  plants 
and  animals;  to  give  a  history  of,  classify,  describe  and 
study  properties  and  characters  ;  to  form  herbariums  and 
collections  of  dissected  animals  ;  and  furnish  the  other  com- 
missions with  the  specimens  which  they  may  require  with 
the  corresponding  data. 

The  second  division  is  composed  of  three  professors  of 
chemistry,  who  must  be  doctors  or  pharmacists,  and  five 
preparers.  Its  purpose  is :  to  analyze  the  products  which 
the  other  divisions  furnish  it  with,  and  separate  the  ele- 
mental parts  contained  in  same ;  make  an  elementary  analy- 
sis of  these  parts  when  they  are  recent  discoveries;  and 
arrange  their  formula ;  make  the  requisite  preparations  for 
experiments  by  the  third  division  and  furnish  the  other 
commissions  with  the  data  which  may  be  required. 

The  third  division  is  composed  of  four  professors  (three 
doctors  and  a  veterinary  surgeon)  an  assistant  and  a  me- 
chanic. The  objects  of  this  division  are :  to  determine 
the  dynamic-medical  action  of  the  contiguous  elements 
or  preparations  which  engage  the  attention  of  the  Sec- 
ond division ;  and  forward  to  the  Governing  Board  the 
results  of  their  studies,  advising  when  same  may  be  applied 
to  therapeutics,  or  their  relative  opinions  on  the  subject. 

The  fourth  division  consists  of  two  professors,  one  of 
whom  is  a  doctor.,  the  other  a  surgeon;  also  all  those  mil- 
itary physicians  and  doctors  appertaining  to  the  public 
beneficence,  private  and  civil,  who  may  wish  to  attach  them- 
selves as  co-laborers,  as  also  six  assistant  doctors.  The 
object  of  this  division  is  the  study  of  the  clinical  applica- 
tions which  the  substances  already  considered  by  the  first, 
second  and  third  divisions  may  possess. 

Composing  the  fifth  division   are  two  professors  of  med- 


3l)(i  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

icinc,  an  assistant  and  a  clerk,  and  the  study  of  the  follow- 
ino-  points  is  their  main  object:  the  distribution  of  endemic 
diseases  in  all  the  districts  of  the  country ;  the  distribution 
of  epidemics  and  spread  of  same  ;  local  ethioiogical  condi- 
tions in  their  relation  with  the  two  preceding  points  and 
the  nature  of  the  diseases;  climacteric  conditions  and  classi- 
fication of  the  climates  throughout  the  country,  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  a  general  climatologicul  map  ;  distri- 
bution of  the  waters,  with  the  object  of  forming  a  gen- 
eral hydrological  map ;  and  the  distribution  of  the  races 
and  their  classification. 

Medals  of  honor,  of  which  there  are  two  classes,  silver 
and  gold,  with  their  respective  diplomas,  are  conferred  on 
those  professors  of  the  Institute  who  lend  efficient  services 
to  the  same.  The  silver  medal  is  awarded  after  five  years 
of  service  to  the  professor  who  shall  have  complied  strictly 
with  his  obligations,  or  published  in  the  Institute  ten  orig- 
inal works  ;  the  gold  medal  is  awarded  at  the  expiration  of 
fifteen  years'  service,  to  the  professor  who,  during  this 
period,  shall  have  given  strict  compliance  with  the  duties 
assigned  him,  or  have  written  and  published  an  original 
work  on  the  points  comprehended  in  the  plan  of  the  Insti- 
tute. In  the  absence  of  such  a  work,  this  requisite  may  be 
supplied  by  furnishing  fifteen  monographics  covering  points 
identical  with  those  already  alluded  to.  In  lieu  of  fifteen 
years  of  services,  the  gold  medal  may  be  obtained  as  a  rec- 
ognition of  a  scientific  discovery  which  may  be  compre- 
hended in  the  plan  of  studies  of  the  establishment. 

Until  a  special  hospital  shall  have  been  founded  for  the 
Institute,  there  has  been  established  a  consulting  room, 
where  medicines  are  furnished  gratis  to  patients. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  367 


NATIONAL    MEXICAN    MEDICAL    CONGRESS. 

The  School  of  Medicine  of  Mexico,  which  has  without 
doubt  attained  the  eminence  reached  by  the  best  schools  of 
this  character  in  both  Europe  and  America,  has,  within  the 
last  few  years,  achieved  an  enviable  reputation  for  the 
energetic  efforts  of  its  o-raduates  in  the  direction  of  ex- 
tending  its  field  of  scientific  investigation  throughout  the 
entire  Republic,  with  the  object  of  embodying  in  its  doc- 
trines the  result  of  its  observations  and  studies  and  finally, 
has  devoted  no  little  energy  to  uniting  in  one  cohesive 
whole  its  isolated  forces.  With  this  end  in  view,  on  Feb- 
ruary 2d,  1892,  there  was  convened  in  the  city  of  Mexico 
an  assembly  which  should  be  entitled  the  "  National  Mex- 
ican Medical  Congress,"  of  which  Dr.  Eduardo  E.  Garcia 
was  the  moving  spirit. 

This  Congress  held  sessions  on  December  6th,  7th,  9th 
and  10th,  18.92,  with  an  attendance  of  267  members,  rep- 
resenting the  various  States,  within  a  few  days  after  the 
"  International  Hygiene  Congress,"  had  concluded  its  im- 
portant labors  (December  3d,  1992). 

The  Executive  Committee  was  formed  in  the  following 
manner:  Dr.  Manuel  Cormona  y  Valle,  President;  Dr. 
Rafael  Lavista,  1st  Vice-President ;  Dr.  Eduardo  Lieeaga, 
2nd  Vice-President;  Directors,  Drs.  Ramos,  Icaza,  Manuel 
Gutierrez,  Francisco  P.  Chacon,  Eduardo  Garcia  y  Andres 
Almaras,  pharmacist ;  General  Secretary,  Dr.  Louis  E. 
Ruia ;  Relator,  Dr.  Secundino  E.  Sosa;  Treasurer,  Dr. 
Domingo  Orvananos. 

In  order  to  complete  its  labors,  fourteen  sessions  were 
determined  upon,  regulated  by  the  suV)jects  for  discussion, 
which  represented  ninety-seven  works,  all  original,  upon 
national  medicine  and  surgery,  and  which  will  be  published 
in  two  large  volumes. 


368  THE   RICHES   OF   MEXICO 

The  Congress  having  finished  its  hibors,  the  Executive 
Committee  held  an  extra  session,  with  one  representative 
from  each  State  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  matter 
of  future  conventions,  and  it  was  decided :  1st,  That  the 
next  should  be  held  in  December,  1894,  in  San  Luis 
Potosi ;  2nd,  that  the  new  Board  of  Directors  should  be 
composed  of  the  following  members:  Dr.  Eduardo 
Liceaga,  President;  Dr.  Jesus  Almaraz,  President  of  the 
Local  Board  of  San  Luis  Potosi ;  Dr.  Miguel  Otero,  1st 
Vice-President;  Dr.  Gregorio  Mendizabal,  2nd  Vice-Presi- 
dent; Directors,  Drs.  Garcia  and  Ramos,  Mexico  City; 
Sta.  Maria,  Durango  and  Ita  of  Puebla. 

The  Minister  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction,  the  Hon. 
Joaquin  Boranda,  presided  at  the  opening  and  closing  ses- 
sions of  the  new  scientific  organization,  which  promises 
such  brilliant  results  for  the  future  in  the  field  of  national 
medicine  and  surgery. 

NATIONAL    SCHOOL    OF    ENGINEERS. 

The  Mining  Ordinances  of  the  22d  of  May,  1783,  ordered 
the  establishment  of  a  seminary  in  Mexico  for  the  teach- 
ing of  metallurgical  subjects.  In  accomplishment  of  this 
regulation  a  college  was  opened  on  the  1st  of  January,  1792, 
but  the  building  which  the  institution  was  destined  finally 
to  occupy  was  begun  to  be  raised  on  the  22d  of  March,  1797, 
according  to  plans  drawn  up  by  D.  Manuel  Tolsa^  and  was 
finished  on  the  3d  of  April,  1813.  Its  cost,  including  the 
repairs  which  it  underwent  in  1830  and  in  later  years, 
amounts  to  about  $1,500,000.  In  it  the  National  School 
of  Engineers,  which  was  so  named  by  law  on  the  2d  of 
December,  1867,  is  at  present  established.  The  school, 
as  well  as  that  of  Agriculture  and  Veterinary  Surgery,  wa^ 
no  longer  dependent,  as  it  had  hitherto  been,  upon  the 
Secretaryship  of   Justice.     They    were    separated    by    law 


AND    ITS   INSTITUTIONS.  369 

on  the  28th  of  November,  1881,  when  all  business  institutions 
and  establishnwents  for  the  propagation  of  agriculture  and 
mining  were  assigned  to  the  Secretary  of  Colonization,  In- 
dustry and  Commerce,  and  the  President  authorized  the 
necessary  reforms. 

On  the  15th  of  February,  1883,  the  decree  reforming 
the  law  of  public  instruction  as  regarded  the  teaching  of 
agriculture  and  mining,  was  issued  and  this  is  the  decree 
that  is  still  in  force  ;  the  professional  studies  were  extended 
so  as  to  cover  a  Avider  field;  new  classes  were  opened  and 
the  necessary  distinctions  made  between  the  professions  by 
determining  the    studies  which  belonged  to  each  of  them. 

On  the  15th  of  the  following  May  the  regulations  re- 
garding them  were  published.  These  rules  have  since  that 
time  guided  the  studies  of  both  schools,  although  these 
latter  have  been  again  made  dependent  upon  the  Secretary- 
ship of  Justice. 

For  the  teachino;  of  mininsr  there  is  the  National  School  of 
Engineers  and  the  school  anexed  to  it,  called  the  Practical 
School  of  Mining  and  Metallurgical  Labors  of  Pachuca.  It  is 
also  ordered  that  there  shall  be  established  work-schools 
for  teaching  mining  and  metallurgy  at  various  places 
in  the  country,  so  that  in  them  maybe  formed  and  trained 
administrators  and  overseers  of  mines,  workers  and 
specialists  in  some  branch  of  the  mining  industry. 

In  the  School  of  Engineers  the  following  professions  are 
taught :  The  assayer  and  sorter  of  metals,  the  topograph- 
ical and  hydrographical  engineer,  the  industrial  engineer, 
the  road  bridge  and  canal  engineer,  the  mining  engineer 
and  metallurgist,  the  geographical  engineer,  and  that  of 
the  electrical  engineer  established  by  decree  on  the  1st  of 
June,  1892,  when  the  chair  of  general  telegraphy  was 
abolished,  though  formerly  a  part  of  the  establishment. 

In  order  to  be  enrolled  in  the  School  of  Engineers  with  all 
the  rights  of  a  pupil,  the  candidate  must  show  by  a  certifi- 

24 


370  THE    lUCIIES    OF    MEXICO 

cate  from  the  National  Preparatory  School  that  ho  has 
been  examined  and  passed  snccessfully  eithoA-  at  it  or  some 
official  school  of  the  States,  in  the  following  subjects : 
Spanish  grammar,  Greek  roots,  French,  English,  elements 
of  German,  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  plane  and  in 
space,  rectilinear  and  spherical  trigonometry,  analytical 
geometry,  rational  mechanics,  experimental  physics,  gen- 
eral chemistry,  natural  history,  cosmography,  physical  and 
political  geography  and  especially  that  of  Mexico,  logic, 
lineal  and  landscape  drawing. 

The  following  are  the  professional  studies  for  the  pro- 
fessions established  in  the  School : 

For  the  assayer  and  sorter  of  metals  :  Analytical  chem- 
istry and  docimacy  mineralogy,  sorting,  coining  and  the 
administration  of  mints,  and  the  practice  of  these  branches. 
A  decree  of  the  1st  of  June,  1892,  added  to  the  list 
industrial  chemistry. 

For  the  topographical  and  hydrographical  engineer: 
Higher  algebra,  analytical  geometry  and  infinitesimal 
calculus,  descriptive  geometry,  topography  and  water- 
measurement,  hydrography  and  meteorology,  topograph- 
ical drawing  and  practice  in  these  branches. 

For  the  industrial  engineer :  Higher  algebra,  analytical 
geometry  and  iiitiiiitesimal  calculu>;  tleseri[)tive  geometry 
and  water  measurement;  stereotomy  and  carpentry,  ana- 
lytical and  applied  mechanics,  industrial  mechanics  ,  con- 
struction and  fixing  of  machines  ;  analytical  and  industrial 
chemistry,  and  docimacy  meteorology,  knowledge  of  build- 
ing materials,  mechanical  theory  of  building  and  practical 
building,  topographical  machine  and  architectural  drawing; 
practice. 

For  road  bridge  and  canal  engineers:  Higher  algebra, 
analytical  geometry  and  iiitiiiitesimal  calculus,  descriptive 
geometry,  topography  and  water  measurement,  stereotomy 
and  carpentry,  analytical  and  applied  mechanics,  hydrog- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  371 

ruphy  and  meteorology,  practical  building  and  mechanical 
theory  of  building,  knowledge  of  building  materials, 
common  roads  and  railways,  bridges,  canals,  harbor 
works,  graphic  statics,  the  study  of  which  was  declared 
obligatory  for  the  course  of  the  road,  bridge  and  canal  engi- 
neer and  also  for  that  of  the  mining  engineer  and  metal- 
lurgists by  a  decree  of  the  29th  of  November,  1890 ; 
topographical,  machine  and  architectural  drawing,  compo- 
sition, practice. 

For  the  mining  engineer  and  metallurgist :  Higher  alge- 
bra, analytical  geometry  and  infinitesimal  calculus,  descrip- 
tive geometry,  topography  and  water  measurement,  analyti- 
cal and  applied  mechanics,  stereotomy  and  carpentry,  knowl- 
edge of  building  materials,  mechanical  theory  of  building 
and  practical  building,  analytical  chemistry  and  docimacy, 
meteorology,  mineralogy,  paleontology  or  fossils,  and 
geology,  mineral  labors,  artesian  wells,  and  mining  legis- 
lation, metallurgy,  graphic  statics,  topographical  machine 
and  architectural  drawing,  practice. 

For  the  geographical  engineer  :  Higher  algebra,  analytical 
geometry  and  infinitesimal  calculus,  descriptive  geometry, 
topography  and  water  measurement,  mathematical  physics, 
calculation  of  probability  and  theory  of  errors,  hydrography 
and  meteorology,  analytical  mechanics,  elements  of  cosmog- 
raphy, geodoesia  and  physical  and  practical  astronomy, 
elements  of  geology,  typographical  and  geographical  draw- 
ing, practice. 

For  the  teaching  of  mining  and  metallurgy  in  the  work 
schools  the  pupils  go  through  the  elementary  theoretical 
studies  of  arithmetic  and  receive  some  knowledge  of 
algebra,  geometry  and  trigonometry,  physics  and  me- 
chanics, chemistry,  metallurgy  and  mining  labors ; 
accounts,  administration  and  economy  of  mines  and  works 
together  with  the  application  of  all  these  elements  to 
practical   questions   in  the  various  branches  ;  Spanish;  and 


372  THE    RICHES    OF    MKXICO 

lineal  drawing.  These  studies  arc  merely  aids  to  the  real 
practice  wliich  is  the  predominant  feature  of  the  work- 
schools.  The  instruction  in  the  National  School  of 
Engineers  and  the  School  annexed  to  it  is  free  and  neither 
for  entrance  nor  for  examinations  is  any  fee  required. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  pupils  enrolled,  namely,  proprie- 
tary, that  is,  those  who  intend  to  adopt  one  of  the  professions 
taught  in  the  School,  andsupernumerar}',  that  is,  those  who 
wish  merely  to  attend  one  or  more  of  the  classes  which  are 
given  in  the  establishment.  Besides  this  the  classes  are 
public  and  any  person  that  wishes  may  attend  them. 

The  Government  has  established  pensions  in  order  to 
stimulate  the  studies  of  those  pupils  who  in  the  judgment 
of  the  committee  of  professors  of  the  School  are  deserving 
of  them.  There  are  in  like  manner  finishing  pensions  for 
those  pupils  of  the  School  and  of  the  work-schools  who 
after  obtaining  their  title  or  diploma  are  proposed  by  the 
above  mentioned  committee  to  be  sent  abroad  in  order  to 
follow  out  their  finishing  studies  during  two  years. 

The  professional  titles  are  given  them  by  the  Secretary 
of  Justice  upon  previous  advice  from  the  managers  of  the 
School  and  after  the  pupils  have  passed  successfully  the 
general  examination.  The  pupils  of  the  work-schools,  in 
like  cases,  are  sent  a  corresponding  diploma;  whilst  those 
who  have  only  received  instruction  and  practice  in  some 
one  special  subject  taught  receive  a  certificate  of  ability. 

It  is  only  the  })r()fessional  title  that  authorizes  a  pupil 
to  follow  the  career  of  a  mining  engineer  or  metallurgist : 
the  di))loma  and  certificate  of  ability  merely  express  the 
person's  knowledge  of  the  branch  for  which  they  are 
given. 

The  School  has  a  meteorological  observatory,  and  a 
library  containing  some  important  scientific  works.  Its 
cabinets  of  building  materials,  mineralogy,  topography, 
geodcEsia,  astronomy    and    industrial  mechanics   are    very 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  373 

interesting.  The  number  of  pupils  in  tlie  establishment 
may  be  set  down  as  averaging  120  yearly.  The  Government 
has  assigned  the  sum  of  $67,527.40  per  annum  for  its 
support. 

NATIONAL     SCHOOL      OF       AGRICULTURE       AND      VETERINARY 

SURGERY. 

The  establishment  of  professorial  chairs  for  teaching 
agriculture  in  Mexico  was  granted  by  the  Directing  Com- 
mittee of  the  old  College  of  San  Gregorio,  and  communi- 
cated to  the  Government  by  an  initiative  of  the  4th  of 
April,  1850.  When  its  approbation  was  secured  the 
President  of  the  Republic  issued  a  circular  on  the  17th  of 
April  of  the  same  year,  making  it  known  to  the  Governors 
of  States  that  they  might  inform  the  public.  The  agricul- 
tural teaching  consisted  of  five  courses,  whilst  the  practice 
took  place  in  the  farms  which  the  college  held.  But  an 
agricultural  school,  properly  such,  was  not  established  till 
1853,  in  the  same  year  as  its  adjunct,  the  Veterinary,  which 
was  created  on  the  17th  of  August,  and  both  were  definitely 
installed  on  the  22d  of  February,  1854,  in  the  ex-convent 
of  San  Jacinto,  and  the  neighboring  tenements  bought  by 
the  Government.  At  present  the  tenements  belonging  to 
the  School,  including  the  portion  occupied  by  the  house  and 
other  buildings,  measure  708,664  square  meters.  As  has 
been  already  said  the  School  was  placed  under  the  Fomenta- 
tion Minister  by  the  law  of  the  28th  of  November,  1881,  but 
afterwards  became  once  more  dependent  upon  the  Minister 
of  Justice  in  virtue  of  a  decree,  and  now  continues  to  be 
governed  in  conformity  with  the  law  dated  the  15th  of 
February,  1883,  and  with  the  regulations  of  the  15th  of  May 
of  the  same  year.  The  courses  established  in  the  National 
School  of  Agriculture  are  those  of  agricultural  engineer 
and  of  the. medical  veterinary  surgeon,  and  in  order  to  be 


374  THE    EICHES    OF   MEXICO 

enrolled  as  a  proprietary  in  either  of  them,  a  pupil  must 
have  passed  successfully  in  the  examination  of  the  different 
branches  of  primary  instruction.  The  preparatory  studies 
for  the  said  professions  are  irone  throuorh  at  the  National 
Preparatory  School.  The  professional  studies  for  the 
career  of  aojricultural  engineer  are  the  followinir :  Arith- 
mctic,  algebra,  plane  geometry,  and  in  space,  rectilinear 
and  spherical  trigonometry;  analytical  geometry,  intinitesi- 
uial  calculus,  descriptive  geometry,  analytical  and  applied 
mechanics,  topography  and  water-measurement,  cosmog- 
raphy and  geography,  especially  that  of  Mexico,  physics 
and  meteorology,  general  chemistry  with  its  application  to 
agriculture,  agricultural  technology,  botany,  zoology, 
geology  and  hydrology,  agronomy  and  philotechnics, 
drainage  and  irrigation,  farm  building,  zootecny;  ac- 
counts, management,  economy  and  country  legislation; 
Spanish,  Greek  and  Latin  roots,  French,  English  and 
elements  of  German  ;  natural  landscape,  to}X)graphic:il, 
machine  and  architectural  drawing,  the  practice  of  them. 
The  studies  likewise  comprise  microbiology,  political 
economy  and  logic  as  is  laid  down  in  the  circular  of  the 
22d  of  March  and  decrees  of  the  25th  of  May  and  1st  of 
June  respectively,  this  last  subject  being  obligatory  for  the 
courses  of  an  agricultural  engineer  and  a  medical  veteri- 
nary  surgeon. 

The  following  studies  have  to  be  gone  through  by 
the  medical  veterinary  surgeon:  Arithmetic,  algebra,  plane 
geometry  and  in  space,  physics  and  meteorology,  general 
chejuistry,  botany,  zoology,  geology,  comparative,  general 
und  descriptive  anatomy,  exterior  of  domestic  animals, 
farrierv,  veterinary  physiology,  general  pathology,  exter- 
nal pathology,  surgery,  internal  pathology,  midwifery, 
hygiene,  pathological  anatomy,  therapeutics,  zooteeny, 
legal  medicine  and  veterinary  legislation,  Spanish, 
Greek    and    Latin    roots,    French,    English,    elements     of 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  375 

German,  natural,  anatomical  and  landscape  drawing,  clinics 
and  practice.  Those  subjects  are  also  studied  which  are 
laid  down  in  the  decrees  previously  mentioned  of  the  year 
1886. 

In  the  work-schools  the  predominant  feature  is  practice 
aided  by  the  elementary  theoretical  studies  of  arithmetic, 
some  knowledge  of  algebi'a,  geometry  and  trigonometry 
with  their  applications  to  the  measurement  of  lines,  surfaces 
and  solids;  elements  of  mechanics  with  their  application  to 
agricultural  machinery,  elements  of  physics,  meteorology, 
and  chemistry  elements  of  zootecny,  of  agrononi}''  and 
philotechnics,-  accounts,  farm  management  and  economy; 
Spanish,  French,  and  the  native  idioms  of  places,  natural 
landscape  and  linear  drawing. 

With  regard  to  the  enrollment  of  proprietary  and  su- 
pernumerary pupils,  the  issuing  of  professional  titles, 
diplomas,  certificates  of  ability,  and  pensions  the  same 
rules  are  laid  down  as  those  for  the  National  School  of 
Engineers.  The  total  number  of  pupils  is  117  of  whom  91 
are  destined  for  the  career  of  agricultural  engineers,  15 
for  that  of  veterinary  surgeons  and  11  who  are  devoting 
themselves  to  various  subjects. 

The  meteorological  observatory  of  the  establishment  is 
endowed  with  the  necessary  instruments  and  apparatus  for 
the  practical  study  of  astronomy  and  the  observations  which 
are  made  therein  are  sent  every  month  to  the  Central 
Observatory  through  the  Fomentation  Secretary.  The 
statutes  of  this  school  have  been  lately  reformed. 

HIGHER  SCHOOL  OF  COMMERCE  AND    ADMINISTRATION. 

This  school  was  inaugurated  in  the  year  1868  in  compli- 
ance with  the  organizing  law  of  Public  Instruction  in  the 
Federal  District,  dated  the  2d  of  December,  1867,  and 
which  ordered  its  establishment.     The  school  occupies   a 


376  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

portion  of  the  old  hospital  of  Terceros,  situated  in  San 
Andres  street,  between  Condesa  Lane  and  Sta.  Isabel  street. 
This  building,  which  was  completed  on  the  7th  of  May, 
1756,  at  the  expense  of  the  members  of  the  third  order  of 
S.  Francisco,  was  confiscated  in  1861  by  virtue  of  the  laws 
of  the  Reform  and  bought  afterwards  by  the  Government 
from  the  holder  for  the  sum  of  $75,000.  The  establish- 
ment is  at  present  ruled  by  the  law  of  the  15th  of  May, 
1869,  reforming  the  organization  of  Public  Instruction  and 
which  has  been  already  mentioned.  This  law  was  issued  by 
the  President,  authorized  by  the  Congress,  on  the  14th  of 
Januar}',  1869.  The  school  is  also  governed  by  the  regula- 
tions relating  to  it  and  approved  of  on  the  27th  of  August, 
1887. 

The  rolls  were  opened  on  the  15th  of  December.  The 
pupils  who  entered  their  names  up  to  the  31st  of  the  same 
month  are  considered  as  making  up  its  complement ;  those 
who  inscribed  themselves  after  that  date  are  regarded  as 
supernumeraries.  In  order  to  be  enrolled  it  is  required 
that  the  pupil  should  be  at  least  14  years  of  age,  that  he 
should  have  finished  his  primary  education,  and  if  a  minor, 
that  he  should  be  presented  b}^  his  father  or  guardian,  who 
shall  also  sign  the  enrollment  along  with  the  pupil.  The 
course  of  studies  is  as  follows:  Arithmetic  and  commercial 
correspondence,  fiscal  accounts,  book-keeping,  commercial 
geography,  political  econom}^  theory  of  credit,  law  of 
nations,  diplomatic  correspondence  and  customs,  commer- 
cial consular  and  maritime  laws,  administrative  law,  con- 
stitutional law,  i)raetical  knowledge  of  national  and  foreign 
wealth,  chemistry  as  applied  to  commerce,  commercial 
hand-writing,  general  history  and  the  special  history  of 
Mexico,  statistics  and  history  of  commerce,  financial,  bank- 
hig  and  exchange  operations,  Spanish  grammar,  French, 
English  and  German.  The  liltrary  of  the  school  contains 
4,800  volumes.     The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  this  pres- 


AND    ITS    IXSTITUTIOXS.  6i< 

ent  year  of  1893  is  275,  the  average  attendance  being  211. 
The  school  enjoys  an  annual  assignment  of  $28,643.20. 

NATIONAL    SCHOOL    OF    ARTS    AND    TRADES    FOR    :MEX. 

The  school  occujDies  a  beautiful  building  which  is  a  com- 
plete contrast  to  the  old  and  ruined  convent  of  San  Lorenzo. 
In  order  to  be  enrolled  as  a  pupil  it  is  sufficient  to  be  in- 
scribed as  such  in  the  school  secretaryship,  to  know  how  to 
read  and  write  and  to  be  at  least  13  years  of  age.  To  be  a 
free  pupil  it  is  only  necessary  to  have  tiuishjed  the  primary 
instruction  and  to  have  obtained  in  its  examination  and  in 
its  hist  course  at  least  the  qualifications  of  Good  in  all  the 
subjects  which  the  said  course  embraces.  The  classes  which 
are  given  in  the  establishment  are  the  following:  Spanish 
grammar,  geography  of  the  country,  writing,  arithmetic, 
algebra,  geometry,  rectilinear  trigonometry,  model  and 
ornametal  drawing,  lineal  and  machine  drawing,  modeled 
drawing  and  carving,  physics  and  some  knowledge  of 
mechanics,  general  chemistry  and  as  applied  to  the  arts, 
French,  Ejiglish,  music  and  gymnastics.  In  1886  a  chair 
was  established  for  constitutional  law  and  political  economy. 

The  workshops  set  up  in  the  school  are:  Smithy  and 
lock-smith's  shop,  carpentry  and  cabinet-making  shops, 
turners'  shop  for  solids  and  hollow  articles,  mechanical 
arts,  pottery,  stone-cutters'  works,  galvanizing  works, 
typography  and  lithography,  photography,  photopography 
and  foundry. 

The  Practicing  School  for  Machinists,  established  bv  de- 
cree on  the  18th  of  December,  1890,  in  the  National  School 
of  Engineers  was  transferred  to  the  School  of  Arts  and  Pro- 
fessions for  Men  in  conformity  with  a  decree  dated  the  16th 
of  March,  1892.  The  studies  comprised  in  its  course  are: 
Arithmetic,  algebra,  as  far  as  equations  of  the  first  grade  ; 
elementary    geometry,    plane  trigonometry,    elements   of 


378  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXUO 

physics,  elements  of  mechanics,  practical  knowledge  of  the 
constructing  materials  used  in  machines  and  of  the  tools,  etc., 
employed  in  puttino^  together  and  taking  asunder  machines; 
practical  and  detailed  knowledge  of  steam  engines,  and 
especially  of  the  locomotives  whose  systems  are  preferred 
on  account  of  certain  advantages,  knowledge  of  the  practi- 
cal working  and  management  of  locomotives  and  of  steam 
eno^ines  in  jzeneral,  knosvledire  of- the  regulations  and  laws 
relating  to  the  running  of  trains  on  the  railways,  lineal  and 
machine  drawing,  some  knowledge  of  French  and  English, 
practice  in  railway  works,  overseeing,  foundries  and  indus- 
trial establishments. 

The  school  assigns  fifty  fellowships  of  which  each  State 
of  the  Republic  has  a  right  to  one.  According  as  the  school 
has  put  its  pupils  through  a  complete  course  they  have 
taken  positions  at  the  directors  and  assistants  in  the  differ- 
ent workshops  and  thus  their  progress  gets  rewarded.  The 
number  of  pupils  for  the  year  1893  was  about  338,  includ- 
ing those  who  are  pursuing  the  course  of  machine  en- 
gineers. The  Government  sustains  the  institution  with  a 
yearly  sum  of  $44,364.55. 

NATIONAL    SCHOOL    OF    ARTS    AND    TRADES    FOR    WOMEN. 

This  school  was  founded  on  the  IGthof  November,  1871, 
as  a  means  of  moralizing  the  people,  to  diffuse  illustration 
and  open  a  wider  field  for  the  destitute  class,  who,  through 
this  establishment,  would  find  better  resources  for  the  sub- 
sistence of  life  and  improvement  of  social  conditions. 

Unfortunately,  the  results  obtained  have  not  corres- 
ponded entirely  to  the  bcncficient  thought  which  caused  its 
Inundation,  for  nearly  all  the  students  belong  to  the  middh' 
class  of  society,  and  the  destitute  appear  to  continue  ro- 
sijrnod  to  remain  in  i<;norance. 

The    maiden    })upils    receive  the    theoretic,    artistic  and 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  379 

technical  instruction  necessary  for  the  exercise  of  some  art 
appropriate  for  women,  as  also  commercial  instruction  in  a 
sufficient  measure  to  open  for  them  the  road  to  employment 
in  commerce,  or  in  any  industrial  business,  taking  charge 
of  the  accounts. 

The  instruction  is  general  and  technical,  the  first  being 
comprised  of  Spanish,  arithmetic,  book-keeping,  notions 
about  civism  and  science,  English,  writing  and  drawing;  the 
second  one,  painting,  modes,  embroidery,  making  of 
artificial  flowers,  lace-making,  tapestry,  gilding  and  book- 
keeping. 

The  pupils  are  either  boarders  in  the  establishment,  or 
supernumeraries.  For  the  former  ones  it  is  obligatory  to 
assist  at  all  the  classes  of  general  instruction,  and  to  dedi- 
cate themselves  to  the  practice  of  the  workshop  that  they 
choose,  and  they  can,  if  they  feel  so  disposed,  attend  the 
class  of  music.  The  course  of  instruction  comprises  four 
years.  The  last  one  is  dedicated  to  the  perfection  in  those 
branches  taught  during  the  three  first  years. 

The  supernumerary  pupils  are  only  allowed  to  assist  at 
the  workshops  they  may  choose,  at  the  class  of  drawing, 
and,  by  permission  of  the  director,  at  the  class  of  music. 
The  course  of  instruction  last  two  years  or  more,  if  the 
teacher  in  the  workshop  thinks  it  necessary  to  employ  more 
time. 

In  order  to  be  a  regular  boarding  pupil,  it  is  necessary 
to  be  presented,  if  of  minority,  by  the  person  who  has  care 
of  the  pupil;  be,  at  least,  13  years  of  age  and  not  older 
than  25;  to  be  vaccinated  and  not  have  any  contagious 
disease;  to  accredit  her  moral  conduct  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  director  ;  to  be  able  to  read  and  write  orthograph- 
ically,  and  to  know  the  four  rules  of  arithmetic,  which 
must  be  verified  in  the  examination  for  admission. 

The  supernumerary  pupils  must  have  the  same  requisites 
as  required  of  the  boarders,  but  the  limit  of  age  is  extended 


380  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

to  30  years,  and  the  examinatioa  is  confined  to  reading  and 
writing  only. 

The  number  of  regular  boarders  must  not  exceed  60,  and 
that  of  supernumeraries  80.  The  programme  of  studies  for 
this  school  was,  during  considerable  time,  burdened  with 
incongruous  matters  that  greatly  embarrassed  the  industrial 
instruction  proper,  as  required  by  the  idea  that  presided  at 
its  creation. 

The  Department  of  Justice  suppressed  said  class  in  1892, 
and  dedicated  the  activity  of  the  school  to  results  more  to 
the  point  and  more  practical. 

At  the  initiative  of  ^Ir.  Zamacona,  director  of  the  estab- 
lishment, the  department  is  actually  occupied  in  studying 
the  reformation  of  the  instruction,  in  conformity  with  the 
advances  made  in  our  epoch  on  the  field  of  industries,  hav- 
ing in  view,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  women  working  at 
manual  labor  that  consumes  their  time,  injures  their  health 
in  many  cases,  and  prevents  them  from  receiving  culture 
mentally  and  morally. 

A  trial  has  therefore  been  made  to  facilitate  women  of 
home  works  of  modern  industries,  using  to  this  end  machines 
of  easy  management  and  small  cost,  as  can  be  afibrded  by 
the  actual  progress  in  mechanics. 

CORRECTIONAL    SCHOOL   OF   TRADES    AND    PROFESSIONS. 

This  School  was  founded  in  the  year  1881,  being  located 
in  the  edifice  formerly  known  as  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul's 
College.  To  its  custody  are  assigned  for  instruction, 
young  people  under  eighteen  years  of  age,  upon  when 
gubernativo  sentences  have  been  passed,  or  who  have  boon 
taken  in  charge  by  request  of  their  jxircnts  or  guardians 
for  the  purpose  of  correcting  their  evil  tendencies  and 
teaching  them  hal)its  of  order  and  industry.  The  institu- 
tion is  of  a   military  character  in  its  organization,  and  its 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  381 

correctional  corps  consists  of  :i  body  known  as  the  "  Work- 
ing Battalion."  The  scholars  who  distinguish  themselves 
by  their  good  behavior,  are  entitled  to  premiums  or  marks 
of  distinction,  and  continue  to  advance  to  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain, 1st  or  2d  sergeant,  enjoying  the  prerogatives  of  their 
class. 

The  literary  instruction  which  they  receive  is  of  the  most 
modern  character,  and  is  given  the  pupils  for  one  or  two 
hours  daily.  For  the  elementary  and  industrial  instruction 
there  are  classes  and  workshops  under  the  direction  of 
competent  skilled  mechanics  and  workmen.  The  educa- 
tion of  the  pupils  is  based  upon  primary  and  second 
primary  classes,  and  they  may  pursue  other  studies,  or 
enter  the  shops. 

There  are  machine  shops,  iron  working,  brass-finishing, 
carpentry,  tailoring  and  shoe  shops. 

NATIONAL    SCHOOL    OF    FINE    ARTS. 

On  the  29th  of  August,  1781,  D.  Fernando  Jose 
Mangino  who  was  at  that  time  Superintendent  of  the 
Mexican  Mint,  proposed  the  establishment  of  this  institu- 
tion, the  project  being  approved  of  in  September  by  the 
Viceroy.  A  preparatory  committee  charged  with  the  duty 
of  organizing  and  establishing  the  new  institution  was  ap- 
pointed in  the  October  following.  On  the  fifth  of  Novem- 
ber, 1781,  it  was  found  possible  to  open  the  drawing  classes 
provisionally  by  a  fund  of  $22,380;  the  proceeds  of  private 
donations  and  of  annual  subscriptions  imposed  upon  the  min- 
ing tribunals,  the  Consulate  and  cities  of  Mexico,  Veracruz, 
Queretaro,  San  Miguel  el  Grande,  Cordoba,  and  Orizaba 
and  which  the  committee  had  to  collect.  The  expediency 
and  advisability  of  the  foundation  of  the  academy  being 
agreed  upon ,  Charles  III  issued  a  decree  for  its  erection  on 
the  25th  of  December,  1783,  calling  it  "  St.  Charles  of  New 


382  THE    lUCHES    OF    MEXICO 

Spain,"  and  granting  it  an  allowance  of  $13,000  yearly. 
The  statutes  were  authorized  by  a  royal  decree  of  the  18th 
of  November,  1784,  and  the  academy  was  opened  on  the 
4th  of  November,  1785,  in  the  IS^int.  In  1791  the  academy 
was  removed  to  the  old  hospital  of  the  "  Love  of  God," 
which  was  founded  in  1541  and  closed  on  the  1st  of  July, 
1788.  About  $13,000  were  then  spent  on  works  of  art, 
instruments  for  the  study  of  agriculture  and  mathematics 
and  consulting  works  and  received  the  collection  of  gypsum 
presented  by  Charles  III  and  brought  to  Mexico  during  the 
same  year  by  Professors  D.  Manuel  Tolsa  and  D.  Rafael 
Jimeno.  The  collection  is  valued  at  $40,000.  In  1825 
the  directing  committee  bought  the  building  and  neighbor- 
ing houses  which  the  School  at  present  occupies,  for  the 
sum  of  $76,000.  Since  1861  the  establishment  is  direct h'- 
dependent  on  the  Government  of  the  Union  and  under  the 
charge  of  a  committee  of  professors  and  a  director  named 
from  among  themselves.  The  plan  of  studies  drawn  up  in 
1868  gave  it  the  name  by  which  it  is  at  present  known, 
namely,  the  National  School  of  Fine  Arts. 

The  gallery  of  paintings  of  the  old  Mexican  school  con- 
tains invaluable  treasures:  the  works  of  Echanove,  Juarez, 
Rodriguez,  Arteaga,  Cabrera  and  others.  In  the  gallery 
of  European  paintings  are  found  works  of  Murillo,  Sur- 
baran,  Alonzo  Cano,  Leonardo  Yinci  and  other  masters. 
Among  the  landscapes  arc  biblical  paintings  by  Marko 
de  Landesio  and  his  disciples  ;  the  paintings  of  the  modern 
Mexican  school  are  equally  rich  and  varied.  The  scul[)tuie 
galleries  contain  a  collection  of  works  executed  by  cele- 
brated  sculptors  and  many  originals  in  plaster  and  marble 
of  the  modern  Mexican  school.  Equally  magnificent  are 
the  galleries  of  line  and  hollow  enG:ravin<r  and  of  archi- 
tecture. 

The  studies  which  arc  gone  through  in  the  scho(d  are 
divided  into   preparatory  and   special,   the  latter    for    the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  383 

courses  of  painting,  sculpture,  ornamental  modeling,  line 
wood  and  hollow  engraving.  Some  of  the  first  are  taught 
in  the  National  Preparatory  School.  According  to  the 
present  programme  the  preparatory  studies  are  completed 
in  ten  years,  the  last  two  of  which  are  devoted  exclusively 
to  the  special  studies  whose  first  year  corresponds  with  the 
fifth  of  the  preparatory  ones.  The  subjects  embraced  by 
these  studies  are  the  following:  Spanish,  French,  figure 
drawing;  ornamental  drawing,  copied  from  prints;  mathe- 
matics (arithmetic,  algebra  and  elementary  geometry)  ; 
drawing  copied  from  the  prints;  perspective  drawing  taken 
from  plaster ;  landscape  drawing,  drawing  from  classic 
orders  including  their  theory;  Italian,  anatomy  of  forms, 
geography,  drawing  from  nature,  general  and  national 
history,  natural  history  and  history  of  the  fine  arts. 

Branch  of  Painting.  Study  of  light  and  shade,  classic 
orders,  drawing  of  the  nude,  copying  of  pictures,  general 
history,  natural  history,  studies  painted  from  nature,  history 
of  the  fine  arts. 

Landscape  Painting.  Elements  of  coloring,  studies 
drawn  from  nature,  landscape  and  figure  drawings,  classic 
orders  of  architectural  drawings,  anatomy,  paintings  of  the 
natural,  of  landscapes  and  of  figures,  general  history,  com- 
position, history  of  the  fine  arts  and  the  esthetics  of  the 
fine  arts. 

Branch  of  Sculpture.  Study  of  the  old  and  of  the  natural, 
composition,  anatomy,  general  history,  the  [esthetics  of  the 
fine  arts  and  the  execution  of  studies  in  marble  and  metul. 

Branch  of  Modeled  Ornamental.  Copies  of  ornamentals, 
drawing  of  plaster  casts,  anatomy,  classic  orders,  studies 
of  still  nature,  drawing  of  the  natural,  history,  composi- 
tion of  ornamentals  of  every  style,  history  of  the  fine 
arts,  practice  in  stucco,  alabaster,  marble  and  woods,  the 
aesthetics  of  the  fine  arts. 

Branch  of  Line  Engraving.   Disposition  of  burine  and 


384  THE    ItlCIIES    OF    MEXICO 

etchinir  lines,  proparation  of  backgrounds,  field  and  drap- 
ery, anatomy,  classic  orders,  drawing  of  the  natural,  and 
pen  sketching,  burine  and  etched  copies,  history,  engrav- 
ing of  figures  burine  and  etched,  drawing  from  painted 
pictures  and  from  nature,  composition,  history  of  the  fine 
arts. 

Branch  of  Hollow  Engraving .  Studies  of  heads  and  of 
modeled  figures,  and  engravings  taken  from  the  old  and 
from  prints,  anatomy,  classic  orders,  historical  elements  of 
heraldry;  letter  engravings,  modeled  ornaments.  Prin- 
ciples of  history  and  of  the  fine  arts  ;  historical  medals  of 
every  kind;  drawing,  composition  of  the  same,  drawing  of 
the  nude. 

Branch  of  Architecture.  For  this  course,  which  was  es- 
tablished in  1867,  the  pupils  must  study  the  following  in  the 
National  Preparatory  School:  Mathematics,  French,  En- 
<Tlish,  physics,  cosmography,  chemistry,  geography  and 
history  ;  and  in  the  School  of  Fine  Arts  these,  namely, 
classic  orders  and  drawing  representing  the  orders  of  every 
stvle,  composition  of  the  ornamental  copied  from  plaster  or 
the  natural,  infinitesimal  calculus,  copying  monuments  of 
different  styles  taken  from  prints  or  from  the  natural, 
rational  mechanics,  descriptive  geometry,  elements  of 
mineralogy  and  geology,  mechanics  as  applied  to  building, 
stereotomy,  perspective,  history  of  the  fine  arts,  practical 
topography,  composition,  legal  architecture,  estimates  and 
surveying. 

There  are  established  in  the  schools  night  classes  of 
industrial  drawing  both  ornamental  and  lineal.  These  are 
meant  especially  for  artisans  and  arc  suited  to  the  particular 
character  of  the  various  employments  of  the  pupils. 

Artists  and  amateurs  who  do  not  belong  to  the  establish- 
ment may  go  to  the  school  during  the  study  hours  and 
freely  copy  the  "works  which  it  contains.  This  freedom 
allowed   for  many  years  by  the  school  was  authorized  by 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  385 

the  Secretary  of  Justice  in  a  resolution  of  the  14th  of 
December,  1883. 

Since  the  year  1849  the  school  has  celebrated  periodical 
exhibitions  with  the  object  of  making  known  the  advances 
made  by  its  pupils. 

On  the  5th  of  November,  1881,  it  celebrated  the  20th 
exhibition  and  at  the  same  time  the  first  Centenary  of  the 
foundation  of  the  establishment.  Later  on  were  held  those 
of  1886. 

The  galleries  of  the  school  are  open  to  the  public  every 
Sunday  from  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  till  one  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  subject  to  the  regulations  of  the  28th  of 
February,  1884. 

By  a  decree  of  the  21st  of  October,  1879,  there  were 
established  in  the  school  annual  and  biennial  examinations 
to  stimulate  and  advance  the  pupils  who  have  arrived  at 
the  higher  studies  of  composition  in  the  branches  of  archi- 
tecture, sculpture,  drawing  of  figures  and  ornamentals, 
figures  and  landscape  painting,  engraving  of  medals  and  of 
prints.  These  examinations  are  obligatory  upon  the  matric- 
ulated and  mining  pupils  and  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
formation  of  a  design  or  idea  of  the  work  and  of  the  com- 
plete working  out  of  the  design. 

The  annual  examinations  or  competitions  form  part  of 
the  pupils'  studies  and  the  works  presented  in  these  com- 
petitions belong  to  their  authors  ;  the  School  preserves  the 
designs  of  those  who  have  obtained  the  highest  qualifica- 
tion. Into  the  bienniel  competitions  only  those  pupils 
who  are  most  advanced  in  composition  are  admitted. 

The  works  presented  belong  to  their  authors  except  those 
which  have  won  prizes.  These  remain  for  the  benefit  of 
the  school  whilst  their  owners  receive  a  gratification  not 
exceeding  $400,  the  amount  being  fixed  by  the  proper 
commission.  For  these  examinations  there  are  especially 
established  a  prize   and  an  accessit   in  every  year  of  the 


386  Tiiic  RICHES  OF  Mexico 

above  meutioued  bninches.  These  consist,  the  tirst,  of  a 
bronze  medal  and  the  second,  of  a  diploma. 

The  staff  of  professors  in  the  establishment  is  both 
complete  and  competent,  and  many  young  men  who  make 
good  progress  are  advanced  to  take  charge  of  the  teaching 
in  the  institutes  of  various  States.  The  School  possesses  a 
select  library  with  more  than  2,000  volumes  in  which  the 
pui)ils  may  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  great  monuments 
and  all  the  works  ancient  and  modern  on  the  different 
subjects. 

The  total  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  School  in  the 
year  1893  was  902,  of  whom  843  are  men  and  59  women. 
The  establishment  enjoys  on  the  part  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment an  annual  assignation  of  $40,045.10 

It  can  be  said  that  among  the  Spanish-American  nations 
Mexico  is  the  only  ope  which  has  founded  a  national  school 
of  fine  arts. 


NATIONAL    CONSERVATORY    OF    MUSIC. 

This  establishment  has  for  its  object  the  teaching,  the 
cultivation  and  the  progress  of  the  musical  art  and  has 
succeeded  in  tilling  up  a  want  felt  by  a  country  where  so 
much  nmsical  talent  abounds. 

It  was  founded  in  the  year  18G(),  by  persons  belonging 
to  the  Directing  Committee  of  the  Mexican  Philharmonic 
Society. 

In  the  beginning  the  Conservatory  was  maintained  by 
donations  from  its  members  and  a  subvention  on  the  part 
of  the  Government,  until  it  Avas  nationalized,  which  was 
done  by  decree  on  the  13th  of  January,  1877,  whilst  the 
rhilharmonic  Society  was  indemnified  for  all  its  expenses, 
including  $17,701,  v/hich  the  small  theater  of  the  Conserv- 
atory cost  and  which  had  been  inaugurated  on  the  28th  of 
January,  1874. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


387 


The    estimates    of    disbursements    for   the  official   year 

1882  to  1883  reduced  the  special  allowance  of  the  estab- 
lishment to  $7,000.  It  was  determined  to  withdraw  from 
the  new  plan  of  studies  all  subjects  that  were  foreign  to 
the  teaching  of  music  and  wliich  were  included  in  the 
previous  programme,  as  for  instance  writing,  Spanish  gram- 
mar and  geography  and  empowered  the  President  to  reor- 
iranize  the  establishment  with  a  sum  of  $25,000.  The 
project  of  reorganizatiou  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Mr. 
Alfredo  Bablot,  who  was  appointed  director  of  the  Conserv- 
atory on  the  1st  of  July,  1882.  It  was  presented  on  the 
30th  of  November,  of  the  same  year;  and  although  the  new 
plan  of  studies  with  all  the  other  reforms  ought  to  have 
been  inaugurated   at  the  beginning  of  the  college  year  of 

1883  in  accordance  with  the  regulation  of  the  27th  of  July, 
1882,  it  was  found  impossible  to  carry  them  into  effect 
except  in  their  essential  particulars  as  the  estimated 
amount  of  money  was  not  sufficient  for  the  purpose  and 
the  establishment  was  only  provisionally  organized  in  the 
terms  laid  down  by  the  decree  of  the  7th  of  January,  1883. 

The  teaching  in  the  Conservatory  is  free  and  embraces, 
according  to  the  above-mentioned  project  of  Mr.  Bablot, 
the  following  studies :  Preparatories,  singing,  instrumental, 
higher  technical,  united,  finishing  and  auxiliary. 

^The  preparatory  studies  are:  Elements  of  musical  theory 
and  preliminary  knowledge  of  harmony,  the  solfa  written, 
spoken  and  sung  individually  and  collectively,  elementary 
theory  and  harmony.  The  singing  studies  are  choral  sing- 
ino-  with  voices  only  (orphean),  the  choir  with  accom- 
paniment, higher  solos  (monody)  and  the  notes  they 
comprise,  the  mechanism  theory  and  expression.  The 
instrumental  are  the  piano,  obligatory  upon  those  who  wish 
to  become  organists,  improvisation,  and  higher  technical 
studies,  the  harp,  the  organ,  bow  instruments,  wind  and 
percussion  instruments. 


388  THE    KICHES    OF   MKXICO 

The  higher  technical  studies  consist  of  harmony  both 
theoretical  and  practical,  composition,  accompaniment, 
aesthetics  comprisino;  the  history  of  music  and  the  biog- 
raphies of  its  celebrated  men,  acoustics  and  phonography. 
The  united  studies  are  hall  music,  symphony,  both  together 
and  with  instruments,  unitedmusic,  vocal  and  instrumental, 
which  is  taught  at  the  same  time  as  classic  music  and 
symphony.  The  auxiliary  studies  are  the  writing  of 
music,  which  embraces  the  practical  writing  of  the  notes, 
and  as  a  compliment  of  this  lithographical  and  metal  en- 
graving, the  Frencii  and  Italian  languages.  The  finishing 
studies  consist  of  the  completion  of  the  musical  education 
begun  in  the  previous  courses. 

The  teaching  therefore  comprises  the  following  subjects: 
Elements  of  musical  theory  and  preliminary  knowledge  of 
harmony;  solfa;  choral  singing  with  voices  only,  choir 
singing  with  accompaniment;  choral  singing  and  vocali- 
zation, knowledge  of  anatomy,  physiology  and  the  hygiene 
of  vocal  organs,  lyrical  declamation,  piano,  harp,  organ 
harmony  and  its  accessories ;  violin,  viola,  violoncello, 
bass  violin,  flute  and  like  instruments,  hautboy  and  English 
horn,  clarionctte,  euphonium  and  similar  instruments;  saxo- 
phone, flageolet,  bassoon  and  trombone,  trumpet,  cornet, 
harmonious  trumpet,  bugles,  sax-horns  and  tube,  trom- 
bones and  ophicleide  instruments  of  the  system  of  Sax, 
their  like  and  ones  derived  from  them.  Percussion  instru- 
ments, harmony,  composition,  accompaniment,  musical 
{esthetics,  both  theoretical  and  applied,  general  history  of 
music  and  the  biographies  of  its  great  men.  Acoustics 
and  phonography.  Hall  fanfar  music,  religious  music ; 
symphony  music,  harmony  and  mixed  music,  music  with 
voices  and  instruments.  Musical  writing  and  the  French 
and  Italian  languages.  This  plan  of  studies  has  been  in 
force,  in  the.  cstablishmont  since  1883  and  has  produced 
admirable  results,  aUhough    it    has   never   been  deflnitcly 


A^'D    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  389 

sanctioned  but  its  observation  merely  authorized  as  a 
trial. 

The  pupils  of  the  Conservatory  are  either  numerary, 
supernumerary  or  bearers.  The  numeraries  are  those  who 
undertake  to  follow  the  courses  of  the  establishment  in 
the  strict  order  which  the  plan  of  studies  lays  down.  The 
supernumeraries  are  enrolled  as  numeraries  at  the  proper 
time  and  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  and  are  those 
who  only  study  one  or  other  of  the  branches  of  the  teach- 
ing without  followino;  their  strict  order  of  studies.  In 
order  to  be  admitted  it  is  necessary  besides  having  the 
certificate  required  for  any  enrollment,  to  show  by  docu- 
mentary evidence  or  by  means  of  au  examination  that  the 
candidates  have  gone  successfully  through  the  studies  prior 
to  the  course  they  are  entering.  The  hearers  are  pupils 
who  attend  the  lessons  of  any  branch  without  enrolling 
themselves  as  numeraries  or  supernumeraries;  they  are  not 
obliged  to  show  their  knowledge  of  an}'  lesson  nor  to  be 
examined ;  but  they  must  submit  to  the  rules  and  discijjline 
of  the  establishment. 

To  be  admitted  as  a  numerary  pupil  in  the  first  year  of 
preparatory  studies  the  candidate  has  to  present  the  follow- 
ing papers :  A  certificate  of  good  ^conduct,  of  knowledge 
of  reading  and  writing  and  the  four  rules  of  arithmetic,  or 
otherwise  to  undergo  au  examination  in  them  ;  a  certificate 
of  vaccination  and  one  showing  that  he  does  not  suffer 
from  any  contagious  disease,  and  proof  that  his  age  is  not 
less  than  eight  years. 

As  soon  as  the  Conservatory  was  organized  it  constituted 
its  orchestra  and  from  it  have  come  forth  the  larger  part 
of  the  professionals  who  compose  the  orchestras  of  the 
theaters  of  the  capital,  many  of  the  most  distinguished 
players  in  the  military  bands  and  some  of  their  directors. 

In  order  to  enter  the  orchestra  of  the  Conservatory,  the 
instrumentalists  must  have  among  other  qualifications,  a  good 


390  THE    lilClIES    OF    MEXICO 

coiuluct,  punctual  attendance  of  the  courses,  the  highest 
qualifications  in  the  yearly  examinations,  the  gift  of  read- 
ino;  music  at  first  sight,  fineness  of  execution  and  suflicient 
instrumental  ability,  and  must  besides  be  proposed  by  the 
jjrofessor  of  the  special  branch  in  which  he  desires  to  enter 
and  undergo  a  special  examination.  If  the  pupil  fulfills 
these  conditions  he  is  admitted  to  the  orchestra  and  his  ap- 
pointment is  given  him  in  the  form  of  a  special  diploma, 
which  is  also  an  honorary  title  and  a  certificate  of  ability  to 
enter  any  symphonic  corporation. 

Mr.  Bablot  on  the  1st  of  September,  1886,  advised  with 
the  Secretaryship  of  Justice  about  the  creation  of  a  "  Society 
of  Conservatory  Concerts  "  which  should  be  formed  of  the 
professors  of  the  establishment  and  their  solo  pupils  both  in- 
strumental and  singing,  with  the  object  of  giving  every  year 
a  series  of  grand  public  and  official  concerts,  benefit  ones 
and  others  for  payment,  for  his  account  and  risk.  The  pro- 
ceeds of  these  to  be  divided  among  the  players  and  the  mu- 
tual association  which  they  might  form.  The  Secretaryship 
on  the  16th  of  July,  1887,  approved  of  the  basis  laid  down, 
seeing  that  the  association  in  its  nature  and  objects  tended  to 
improve  and  stimulate  its  members,  and  co-operated  in  the 
advancement  of  the  Conservatory.  The  first  series  of  con- 
certs was  given  in  the  year  1888. 

The  establishment,  bcingorganized  on  so  complete  a  planof 
studies  and  with  a  staff  of  professors  of  well-known  artistic 
reputation  and  receiving  from  the  Government  a  yearly  sum 
of  more  than  $45,000  maintains  itself  in  the  high  position 
which  the  present  civilization  of  Mexico  demands.  The 
number  of  persons  being  educated  in  the  Conservatory  in 
1892  was  1,656,  of  whom  ')17  were  women  and  1,039  men. 

MILITAUV    fOLLEOE. 

This  institution,  undoubtedly  the  ino^^t  important  belong- 
inz  to  tli(!   atinv,   dates   from    the    year    18i'4,   duiinir   the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  891 

presidency  of  Mr.  Guadalupe  Victoria.  It  was  intended 
to  found  one  in  1829  in  imitation  of  similar  establishments 
in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  but  it  was  found  impossi- 
ble to  fully  equip  it  until  the  year  1838.  At  first  the 
college  was  established  in  San  Carlos  de  Perote  ;  afterwards 
it  was  translated  to  the  capital  of  the  Republic  and 
installed  in  the  Bethlemite  convent,  forming  part  of  the 
Sapper  Brigade. 

In  1833  the  young  institution  passed  to  the  building  of 
San  Lucas,  at  present  the  Military  Hospital,  and  there  it 
remained  till  1843,  when,  by  the  orders  of  the  Government, 
it  again  changed  tc  the  castle  of  Chapultepec.  After  the 
American  invasion,  in  1848,  the  establishment  opened  its 
classes  in  the  Rastrillo  barracks  and  the  building  of  San 
Lucas.  From  thence  it  was  transplanted  in  1869  to  the  old 
archepiscopal  residence  of  Tacubaya,  where  it  stayed  till 
1881,  when  it  once  more  occupied  the  palace  of  Chapultepec 
and  where  it  still  is. 

In  the  Military  College  all  youths  who  intend  to  devote 
themselves  to  a  military  life  receive  instructions  and  are 
drilled  in  the  various  exercises  of  the  army.  Those  also 
who  aspire  to  enter  the  national  navy  go  through  their 
preparatory  studies  in  the  same  institution. 

The  direction  of  the  studies,  the  enforcing  of  the  punctual 
observance  of  the  rules  and  regulations,  as  well  as  all 
instructions  referring  to  the  establishment  are  in  the  hands 
of  the  Director  of  the  College,  who  also  exercises  the  powers 
which  the  general  ordinance  appoints  to  colonels,  with 
bodily  authority. 

The  Subdirector  has  charge  of  the  conduct  and  discipline 
of  the  members  of  the  establishment  and  of  the  particulars 
of  the  service  and  its  administration. 

The  College  is  equipped  with  a  very  competent  staff  of 
professors,   thirty-tive  in  number,   with  ten  masters,  four 


392  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

assistant-masters  and  three  preparatory  ones  for  physics, 
chemistry  and  natural  history. 

Professors. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  position  of  professor  in  the  College 
it  is  necessary  to  know  thoroughly  the  subject  to  be  taught, 
both  theoretically  and  practically. 

To  be  a  professor  one  must  also  have  a  title  in  some 
science  or  at  least  he  must  know  outside  of  the  course  he 
intends  to  teach  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  able  to  examine 
in  them,  two  of  the  subjects  which  form  part  of  the  teach- 
ing in  the  establishment.  Upon  the  shoulders  of  the  pro- 
fessors is  laid  the  duty  of  teaching  both  theoretically  and 
practically  as  well  as  that  of  watching  over  the  preserva- 
tion of  discipline  and  the  conduct  of  their  pupils.  They 
compose  the  text  of  their  respective  courses  of  teaching 
subject  to  the  approbation  of  the  faculty  body.  The  civil 
professors  hold  within  the  college  the  ranks  of  1st  captains, 
whilst  the  military  professors  maintain  the  rank  which 
rightfully  belongs  to  them  in  the  army.  Those  who  dur- 
ing three  months  fail  to  fill  their  chairs  on  three  days  with- 
out a  reasonable  excuse  are  referred  by  the  board  of 
directors  to  the  Secretary  of  War  for  immediate  dismissal. 

The  preparatory  and  assistant  masters  take  the  places  of 
the  professors  in  cases  of  absence  or  sickness  and  with  the 
same  authority  as  those  they  represent  had. 

When  the  professors,  preparatory  masters,  masters,  and 
assistant  masters  have  efficiently  fulfilled  their  duties  with- 
out being  on  furlough  for  more  than  one  month  in  every 
five  years,  and  when  they  have  composed  the  texts  of  their 
respective  classes  and  these  texts  have  been  adopted  for  at 
least  three  3'ears,  then  they  have  the  right  to  retire  on  pen- 
sion according  to  the  instructions  of  the  general  army 
ordinance. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


393 


Pupils. 

In  order  to  be  a  pupil  it  is  necessary,  1st.  To  be  a  Mexican 
either  by  birth  or  naturalization;  to  be  from  16  to  18  years 
of  age ;  not  to  have  been  expelled  from  any  public  school 
or  college  and  to  have  passed  an  examination  held  in  the 
same,  showing  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  alge- 
bra, Spanish  and  of  first  year's  French  in  accordance  with 
the  programme  of  entrance.  2d.  To  have  been  vaccinated, 
to  have  the  necessary  bodily  fitness  for  the  army  certified 
to  by  the  college  medical  officer  who  will  base  his  judgment 
on  the  list  of  causes  which  exempt  from  entrance  into  the 

army. 

The  applicant  for  entrance  should  address  his  applica- 
tion in  his  own  handwriting  to  the  Secretary  of  War  and 
Navy  in  the  months  of  October  or  November  of  each  year. 
In  his  letter  he  should  give  his  name,  place  of  birth  and  age 
and  at  the  top  a  declaration  from  his  father  or  guardian 
certifying  under  the  father's  or  guardian's  signature  that 
he  agrees  to  his  son's  or  ward's  entering  the  army.     Along 
with  the  application  he  should  send  a  copy  of  his  baptismal 
reo-ister  as  well  as  certificates  of  his  conduct,  studies  and 
diligence.     Soldiers'  sons  can  enter  as  pupils  from  the  age 
of  15  and  they  should  also  send  with  their  application  in 
addition  to  the  documents  already  mentioned,  a  copy  of  the 
certificate  of  their  father's  last  situation.     Those  youths 
can  also  enter  the  institution  as  pupils  who  are  from  18  to 
20  years  of  age  if  they  are  acquainted  with  the  non-military 
sciences  taught  during  the  first  three  study  years  at  the  col- 
leo-e.    They  receive  too  those  who  have  not  this  knowledge ; 
but  such  pupils  have  not  the  right  tg  the  faculty  course  of 
studies  and  are  merely  destined  for  the  infantry  or  cavalry 
and  only  pursue  the  studies  which  are  meant  for  either  an 
infantry-man  or  a  cavalry-man.     The  aspirants  on  being 
affiliated  to  the  college  have  their  duties  imposed  on  them 


31>4  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

by  the  superior  in  accordance  witii  the  rule  and  general 
ordinance  of  the  army.  It  is  understood  of  course  that 
they  enter  the  army  from  the  day  on  which  their  place  is 
assigned  them  in  the  college,  and  that  at  all  times,  what- 
ever may  be  the  state  of  their  studies,  they  are  obliged  to 
serve  as  officers  in  the  array  if  the  Supreme  Government  so 
directs. 

Those  who  are  intended  for  the  infantry  and  cavalry  are 
under  the  obligation  of  serving  as  officers  at  least  three  vears 
after  finishing  their  respective  studies.  Those  who  devote 
themselves  to  a  faculty  career  must 'serve  within  five  years 
and  those  who  adopt  the  navy  as  their  profession  pass  into 
the  naval  school  on  finishing  their  studies. 

Pupils  who  pass  successfully  in  the  subjects  marked  by 
the  regulations  for  any  branch  of  the  army  become  lieuten- 
ants in  the  permanent  militia  or  first  midshipmen  in  the 
national  navy  if  destined  for  the  sea,  whilst  those  who  have 
successfully  gone  through  their  first  two  years  of  study 
become  sul)-lieutenants  t)f  infantry  or  cavalry. 

In  order  to  become  an  officer  in  the  army  it  is  essential 
to  })e  at  least  nineteen  years  of  age  according  to  the  General 
Ordinance. 

The  pui)ils  are  fed  and  clothed  in  the  establishment  and 
are  furnished  with  l)ooks,  drawing  and  writing  materials 
and  are  obliged,  when  a  review  is  held,  to  show  all  the 
arms,  accoutrements,  clothes  and  school  materials  which 
have  been  supplied  to  them.  The  text-books  also  in  which 
they  have  ])assed  are  given  to  them  and  remain  their  own 
})voperty  to  the  end  of  every  college  year  in  order  that 
they  may  be  able  to  consult  them  and  refer  to  them  as 
they  advance  in  their^  studies.  They  can  take  with  them 
when  going  into  the  army  their  clothes  for  their  own  use. 

The  subjects  taught  in  the  establishment  for  the  differ- 
ent blanches  of  the  army  and  distributetl  over  the  various 
years  as  follows,  are  tliese: 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


395 


Studies  of  Infantry  and   Cavalry   Officers. 

First  Year.  Rules  lor  infantry  maneuvers  and  practice 
of  same.  Ordinance  first  year,  from  the  soldier's  duties  to 
the  duties  of  the  Adjutant  (aid-de-camp)  including  general 
orders,  military  and  general  honors;  plane  geometry,  in 
space  and  rectilinear  trigonometry.  French,  landscape 
drawing,  gymnastics  and  swimming. 

Second  Year.  Rules  for  cavalry  maneuvers  and  practice 
of  same  and  service  of  cavahy  in  the  field.  Ordinance  sec- 
ond year the  whole  of  the  third  treatise  and  documenta- 
tion, fixed  planes  and  military  topography  with  the 
corresponding  practice,  especially  in  making  military 
journeys  and  reading  charts,  universal  geography  and 
chiefly  Mexico.    Topographical  drawing,  military  accounts. 

Third  Year.  Ordinance  third  year,  the  whole  of  the 
fourth  treatise  which  comprises  the  service  of  troops  in 
the  field.  Military  legislation  and  laws  of  war.  Transi- 
tory fortification  and  encamping.  Universal  history  and 
especially  that  of  Mexico,  fencing  and  pistol-shooting  first 
year,  military  hygiene  and  veterinary  medicine. 

Studies  of  Artillery  Officers. 

First  Year.  Rules  for  infantry  maneuvers  and  practice 
of  same.  Ordinance  first  year,  from  the  soldier's  duties  to 
those  of  the  adjutant,  including  general  orders,  military 
and  funeral  honors,  plane  geometry  in  space  and  rectilinear 
trigonometry.  French,  landscape  drawing,  gymnastics  and 
swimming. 

Second  Year.  Rules  for  cavalry  maneuvers  with  practice 
of  same  and  service  of  cavalry  in  the  field.  Ordinance 
second  year,  the  whole  of  the  third  treatise  and  documen- 
tation.    English  first  year,  universal  geography  and  espe- 


396  TUE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

cially  Mexico ;  analytical  geometry,  iufiuitesimal  calculus; 
first  year  water-colored  o-eometrical  drawinij. 

Third  Year.  Transitory  fortification  and  encamping. 
Ordinance  third  year,  the  whole  of  the  fourth  treatise  which 
comprises  the  service  of  troops  in  the  field;  higher  algebra 
and  second  year  of  analj'tical  geometry  and  of  infinitesimal 
calculus;  universal  history  and  especially  that  of  Mexico; 
delineated  drawing.     English  second  year. 

Fourth  Year.  Permanent  fortification  and  military 
bridges,  military  legislation  and  laws  of  war,  analytical 
mechanics,  descriptive  geometry.  English  third  year,  ma- 
chine drawing  first  year. 

Fifth  Year.  Military  hygiene  and  veterinary  medicine  ; 
applied  mechanics,  physics,  machine  drawing  second  year, 
military  accounts,  stereotomy. 

Sixth  Year.  First  year  of  artillery,  fencing  and  pistol- 
shooting.  First  year  chemistry,  mechanical  theory  of 
building,  knowledge  of  building  materials  and  practical 
building,  topographical  drawing  first  year. 

Seventh  Year.  General  topography  and  water  measure- 
ment, second  year  of  artillery,  logic  and  constitutional  law, 
fencing  and  pistol-shooting  second  year. 

Studies  of  Engineers. 

First  Year,  Rules  for  iufantr}'  maneuvers  and  practice 
of  same.  Ordinance  first  year,  from  the  soldier's  duties  to 
those  of  the  adjutant,  including  general  orders,  military 
and  funeral  honors  ;  plane  geometry  in  space  and  recti- 
linear trigonometry.  French,  landscape  drawing,  gymnas- 
tics and  swimming. 

Second  Year.  Rules  for  cavalry  maneuvers  with  prac- 
tice of  same  and  service  of  cavalry  in  the  field.  Ordinance 
second  3'ear;  the  whole  of  the  third  treatise  and  documen- 
tation;   analytical  goomctrv  and  infinitesimal  calculus  first 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  397 

year;  universal  geography  and  especially  that  of  Mexico. 
English  first  year ;   water-colored  geometrical  drawing. 

Third  Year.  Transitory  fortification  and  encamping. 
Ordinance  third  year,  the  whole  of  the  fourth  treatise 
which  comprises  the  service  of  troops  in  the  field;  higher 
algebra  and  third  year  of  analytical  geometry  and  of  in- 
finitesimal calculus.  English  second  year ;  universal  history 
and  chiefly  that  of  Mexico  ;  delineated  drawing. 

Fourth  Year.  Permanent  fortification  and  military 
bridges.  Military  legislation  and  laws  of  war,  analytical 
mechanics,  physics.  English  third  year  ;  military  hygiene 
and  veterinary  medicine. 

Fifth  Year.  Military  accounts,  fencing  and  pistol-shoot- 
ing. First  year  descriptive  geometry,  perspective  and 
shading,  spherical  trigonometry,  cosmography  and  theory 
of  errors;   topographical  drawing  first  year. 

Sixth  Year.  First  year  of  artillery,  fencing  and  pistol- 
shooting.  Topographical  drawing  second  year,  general 
topography,  natural  history,  strategy  and  tactics. 

/Seventh  Year.  Service  of  the  higher  States.  Surveying, 
and  astronomy,  including  the  theory  of  eclipses,  logic  and 
the  elements  of  constitutional  law,  geographical  drawing 
and  charts. 

Studies  of  Midshipmen  of  the  National  Navy. 

First  Year.  Rules  for  infantry  maneuvers  and  practice 
of  same.  Ordinance  first  year,  from  the  soldier's  duties 
to  those  of  the  adjutant,  including  general  orders,  military 
and  funeral  honors,  plane  geometry  in  space  and  rectilinear 
trigonometry.  French  landscape  drawing,  gymnastics  and 
swimming. 

Second  Year.  Transitory  fortification,  analytical  geome- 
try and  infinitesimal  calculus,  first  year ;  universal  geog- 
raphy and  especially  that  of  Mexico.     English  first  year; 


398  THK    RICHES    OF    MKXICO 

delineated  and  water-colored  drawing,  military  legislation 
and  laws  of  war. 

Tliird  Year.  Fencing  and  pistol-shooting  first  year  ;  an- 
alytical mechanics,  cosmography,  univer.sal  history  and 
especially  that  of  Mexico.  English  second  year;  military 
hygiene,  machine  drawing. 

Fourth  Year.  Fixed  planes  and  military  topography  with 
the  corresponding  practice,  especially  in  making  militaiy 
journeys  and  reading  charts;  reckoning,  navigation,  nau- 
tical terms  and  maneuvers,  fencing  and  pistol-shooting 
second  year,  physics.  English  third  year;  logic  and 
the  elements  of  constitutional  law,  topographical  drawing 
first  year. 

The  teaching  of  applied  subjects  is  both  practical  and 
theoretical.  The  professors  therefore  of  physics,  chem- 
istry and  natural  history  have  their  cabinets  well  supplied 
with  everything  necessary.  In  the  astronomy  class  prac- 
tical lessons  in  astronomy  are  given  during  the  five  middle 
months  of  the  year.  In  the  topograph}'-  class,  the  pupils, 
after  learning  the  description  and  management  of  the 
instruments,  practice  in  the  open  country. 

In  the  infantry,  cavalry  and  artillery  classes  the  various 
styles  of  tactics  are  practiced.  All  the  pupils  go  through 
the  maneuvers  and  shooting  practices  by  being  divided 
among  the  regular  army  troops  ;  those  of  the  artillery  also 
visit  the  army  establishments  at  the  end  of  their  college 
year. 

The  professors  of  each  branch  give  practices  at  the  times 
of  the  year  most  convenient  and  when  the  pupils  have  well 
mastered  the  applied  subjects  they  are  stuilyiug.  When 
the  studies  are  such  that  their  application  must  be  made 
outside  of  the  capital  then  this  application  is  so  made,  and 
the  pupils  visit  factorjes,  workshops  or  other  important 
institutions  and  this  is  especially  done  in  the  case  of  those 
studying  mechanics.     The    exercises  in   shooting  cannons 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  399 

and  guns,  the  making  of  fortifications  and  practicing  service 
in  the  field  are  all  performed  in  the  yearly  encampments 
which  are  formed  from  the  15th  to  the  30th  of  November 
at  places  not  more  than  eight  leagues  distant  from  the 
college.  The  pupils  undertake  this  expedition  on  foot  in 
marching,  columns  and  along  with  the  regular  troops  who 
accompany  them  for  the  purpose. 

The  course  of  annual  lectures  lasts  from  the  8th  of  Jan- 
uary till  the  30th  of  September,  and  during  the  last  seven 
days  of  the  college  year,  the  classes  are  suspended  in  order 
that  the  pupils  may  prepare  for  their  examinations  which 
begin  on  the  1st  of  October,  and  end  on  the  12th  of 
November. 

Examinations. 

For  the  examination  of  each  course,  every  professor 
makes  his  own  questions.  He  divides  the  subjects,  which 
make  up  the  total  of  the  programmes  into  a  convenient 
number  of  sets,  in  such  a  way  that  each  set  contains  ques- 
tions upon  the  beginning,  the  middle,  and  the  end  of  the 
course.  The  questions  are  such  that  they  can  be  sufficiently 
answered  within  the  time  allowed  for  the  examination. 
The  committee  of  judges  for  each  subject  consists  of  three 
persons,  namely,  two  from  the  college  nominated  by  the  Di- 
rector and  one  invited  by  the  Secretary  of  War  from  among 
the  professors  of  the  national  schools  or  from  the  superiors 
and  officers  of  the  army.  In  order  that  the  examination  of 
each  pupil  be  valid  and  that  the  qualification  he  obtains  be 
strictly  in  accordance  with  justice,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
three  judges,  who  vote  in  their  committee,  be  present  and 
that  they  devote  their  whole  attention  to  the  examination. 
The  passes  of  the  pupils  in  all  the  classes  are  qualified  by 
the  series  of  figures  from  0  to  5  which  mean  respect- 
ively, failed,   poor,  fair,    good,    very  good,  excellent.     A 


400  TEffi   KICHES   OF   MEXICO 

pupil  passes  when  he  is  unanimously  voted  at  least  the 
tigure  2  which  qualifies  him  as  fair. 

The  judges  cannot  be  objected  to,  and  their  decisions, 
when  sriven  in  accordance  with  the  regulations,  are  irrevo- 
cable. 

There  are  three  prizes  established  for  each  year  of 
studies.  The  First  Prize  consists  of  an  honorary  diploma 
sent  by  the  President  of  the  Republic  and  a  set  of  books, 
instruments  or  objects  which  will  be  useful  in  military  life; 
the  Second  Prize  is  the  diploma  only  ;  Honorable  Mention 
is  the  third  and  is  made  at  the  public  distribution  of  prizes. 
The  pupils  who  have  obtained  the  first  prize  every  year 
without  having  to  repeat  any  subject  and  who  have  ob- 
served an  irreproachable  conduct  are  decorated  together  by 
the  First  Magistrate  of  the  Nation  with  a  gold  medal  called 
the  faculty  merit  medal  of  tJie first  class.  Those  who  ob- 
tain the  second  prize  under  the  same  conditions  receive  a 
silver  medal  called  the  faculty  merit  medal  of  second 
class.  This  decoration  is  given  along  with  the  diploma 
they  have  gained. 

Those  pupils  who  have  completed  their  first  five  years' 
studies  without  having  failed  at  the  examinations  in  any 
subject,  and  who  have  besides  been  well-conducted  are  styled 
distinguished  pupils.  They  received  their  respective  nom- 
inations signed  by  the  Director  of  the  College  and  wear  on 
their  left  sleeve  above  the  shield  a  saw  in  a  square  bordered 
with  yellow  or  gold  thread,  according  as  the  uniform  is  the 
daily  or  full  dross  one.  They  receive  al?o  among  the  papers 
of  their  respective  companies  a  gratification  of  three  dollars 
every  holiday.  The  naming  of  the  pupils  for  decorations 
and  for  distinctions  takes  place  at  the  solemn  distribution 
of  prizes,  which  is  performed  on  the  1st  Sunday  of  Decem- 
ber, when  the  President  of  the  Eepublic,  the  higher 
authorities,  superiors  and  ofiicers  of  the  army  are  invited. 

The  grades  of  Ensign  and  Midshipmen,  of  Corporal,  2d 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  401 

Sergeant  and  1st  Sergeant  are  always  given  as  prizes  for 
the  most  progress  in  studies  together  with  a  faultless,  civil 
and  military  conduct. 

LA    PAZ    COLLEGE. 

This  institution  owes  its  origin  to  the  distinguished 
Basque  gentlemen,  Messrs.  Echeveste,  Aldaco  and  Meave, 
who  founded  it  in  July,  1734,  spending  on  it  half  a  million 
of  dollars.  The  establishment  was  intended  as  a  house  of 
refuge  and  education  for  poor  girls  and  invalid  Spanish 
widows.  The  Rector  and  deputies  from  the  confraternity 
of  Aranzazu,  formed  by  natives  of  Biscay  in  Mexico,  sent  up 
a  petition  to  the  King  of  Spain  in  1735,  in  which  they  in- 
formed him  of  the  erection  of  the  college,  its  object  and  the 
amount  of  money  destined  for  its  support  and  praying  him 
at  the  same  time  to  issue  the  necessary  royal  decree  for  its 
opening,  and  to  approve  the  constitution  and  statutes  drawn 
up  by  the  confraternity.  The  King  granted  their  petition 
in  a  decree  dated  the  31st  of  March,  1753,  and  in  a  royal 
proclamation  of  the  seventh  of  September  of  the  same  year 
by  which  he  confirmed  and  approved  of  the  establishment 
of  the  new  College  as  well  as  the  constitution  which  had 
been  drawn  up. 

They  were  finally  approved  of  by  a  royal  proclamation 
on  the  17th  of  July,  1766.  This  institution,  which  was 
merely  laical,  was  subject  to  the  king  of  Spain  and  to  the 
staff,  Rector  and  deputies  of  the  Congregation  of  Aranzazu, 
their  administration  and  economical  government.  The  Col- 
lege funds  began  to  lessen  considerably  during  the  last  years 
of  the  colonial  government,  for  the  latter  appropriated 
them  by  virtue  of  operations  called  consolidations  and  loans 
and  thus  occasioned  the  establishment  a  loss  of  $958,000. 
In  later  times  the  Mexican  Government  at  different  epochs 
has  employed  the  funds  of  the  College  to  the  extent  of 

26 


402  THE    laCIIES    OF    MEXICO 

$30,000  but  this  debt,  as  well  us  the  former  one,  has  been 
acknowledged  by  the  Government  of  the  Republic  in  a  law 
dated  the  28th  of  June,  1824.  The  Confraternity  of  Aran- 
zazu  was  suppressed  together  with  all  other  congregations 
by  virtue  of  a  law  dated  the  12th  of  June,  1879,  and  thus 
come  to  a  close  the  immediate  exercise  of  its  patronage  of 
the  College  which  now  devolved  upon  the  Nation,  and  in 
place  of  the  supreme  order  of  the  6th  of  January,  1861, 
was  substituted  a  Directory  Committee  composed  of  trust- 
worthy persons  w^hom  the  Government  appointed  to  exercise 
the  duties  of  the  suppressed  confraternity  regarding  the  in- 
stitution. A  circular  of  the  18th  of  April,  1884,  determined 
the  reduction  of  the  college  property,  but  another  of  the 
6th  of  April,  1885,  revoked  this  determination  in  cases 
where  the  said  property  had  never  been  under  the  admin- 
istration of  the  Clergy.  The  establishment  to-day  is  under 
the  patronage  of  the  First  Magistrate  of  the  Nation  and  en- 
joys from  the  Government  an  allowance  of  $18,000  yearly 
to  improve  the  education  of  the  pupils  by  having  recourse 
to  the  modern  progress  of  public  instruction.  In  this  in- 
stitution the  Government  has  preserved  the  internal  arrange- 
ments which  were  abolished  in  all  other  schools  out  of  re- 
spect to  the  will  of  its  founders  as  far  as  was  compatible 
with  the  laws  and  in  order  not  to  close  the  doors  upon  young 
orphan  and  destitute  girls  and  that  they  might  there  acquire 
the  necessary  education  to  gain  their  living  honestly  and  to 
arm  themselves  against  the  dangers  to  which  they  are  ex- 
posed by  their  poverty,  ignorance  and  youth. 

There  are  departments  for  boarders  and  day  scholars  which 
are  conveniently  furnished  with  the  necessaries  for  learning 
in  the  various  classes  which  are  held,  such  as  pianos,  har- 
moniums, music  and  the  methods  of  the  most  celebrated 
masters,  notable  models  for  drawing  and  painting,  school 
museums,  both  national  and  foreign,  etc.,  etc. 

The  regulations  i)ut  in   force  in  March,  1885,  divide  the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  403 

iDstruction  into  six  years,  during  whicli  tlie  following  sub- 
jects are  taught :  Reading,  writing,  Spanish  grammar,  origin 
and  progress  of  the  Spanish  language;  arithmetic,  both 
demonstrative  and  commercial,  metric  system,  geometry, 
book-keeping,  correspondence,  knowledge  of  national  and 
foreign  goods,  geography,  history,  physical  sciences, 
teaching,  literature,  telegraphy,  moral  and  sacred  history, 
hygiene,  English,  French,  music,  natural,  lineal  and  orna- 
mental drawing,  sewing  and  embroidery. 

The  studies  being  thus  extended  and  made  to  satisfy  the 
requirements  of  the  age  and  the  aspirations  of  the  pupils, 
the  establishment  is  now  producing  the  results  which  might 
be  expected  of  it,  as  is  clearly  proved  by  the  vast  number 
of  its  pupils  who  have  obtained  diplomas  as  teachers  of 
public  and  secondary  instruction  from  the  corporation  of 
the  capital,  and  the  honorary  medals  which  its  staff  has 
won  in  the  universal  exhibition  of  Philadelphia  and  the 
well-merited  fame  tor  superiority  which  it  has  acquired  for 
teaching  hand  work  and  embroidery  (over  other  establish- 
ments of  a  like  kind).  The  library  of  the  college  is  a  re- 
cent institution  and  has  already  about  600  volumes  which 
have  been  presented  by  private  persons  and  publishers  of 
the  capital. 

NATIONAL  SCHOOL  FOR  THE  BLIND.* 

This  was  founded  in  1870  by  Mr.  Ignacio  Trigueros.  In  it 
are  received,  without  payment  of  any  fee,  all  blind  children 
from  eight  years  of  age  to  sixteen  of  both  sexes  and  who 
are  notoriously  poor,  and  besides  their  education  they  re- 
ceive shelter  during  the  course  of  their  studies.  Those  who 
do  not  wish  to  be  received  as  pupils  may  attend  without 
payment  at  the  classes  and  lectures  which  are  given  in  the 
establishment.     Young    blind    persons  whose    parents  are 


See  "  Beueficeuce,"  page  i44. 


404  THE    KICUES    OF    MEXICO 

able  to  pay  a  small  monthly  sum  are  likewise  admitted 
according  to  a  provisional  arrangement  and  their  fees  go  to 
the  funds  of  the  establishment. 

The  classes  established  are :  Reading,  writing,  Spanish 
grammar,  arithmetic,  geography,  geometry,  history  of  Mex- 
ico, English,  French,  gymnastics,  music,  singing  and  har- 
mony. The  classes  of  music  comprise  the  piano,  clarionet, 
mandolin,  tiagelet,  hautboy,  harp,  concertina,  stringed  and 
brass  instruments. 

There  are  tailors  shops,  shoemakers  shops,  typography, 
book-binding,  carpentry,  lace-making,  brush-making,  to- 
bacco manufacture,  making  of  paste-board  boxes,  mats, 
weaving  and  linking.  They  also  do  needle  and  crochet 
work  and  other  hand-works.  Before  the  year  1878  the 
Government  protected  this  school  in  an  indirect  way  through 
the  Benefit  Committee,  but  in  that  year  it  was  nationalized 
and  its  name  appeared  in  the  Estimates  of  Disbursements 
of  the  Federation  subventioned  with  a  sum  of  $17,717.35. 
To-day  the  allowance  amounts  to  $22,556.70. 

THE    SCHOOL    FOR    DEAF    MUTES* 

Was  founded  in  18GG  by  the  corporation  of  Mexico  on  the 
initiative  of  D.  Ignacio  Trigueros,  who  was  then  president 
of  the  body.  Its  first  director  was  D.  Fernando  Huct,  a 
foreisner  and  a  deaf  mute  from  birth.  At  first  this  School 
was  not  of  a  merely  local  character  but  received  pupils 
from  all  parts  of  the  country  and  the  corporation  in  a  circu- 
lar dated  the  31st  of  ()ctol)er,  1867,  urged  the  Governors  of 
States  to  send  to  the  establishment  children  who  had  the 
organic  defect  of  being  deaf-mutes  and  to  contribute  a 
convenient  amount  to  their  .support. 

By  a  decree  of  the  2'Jth  of  November,  1867,  the  School 


*  See  "  Beneficence. ' 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  405 

was  nationalized  and  since  that  time  it  has  remained  under 
the  protection  of  the  Government  and  in  direct  dependence 
upon  the  Department  of  the  Interior. 

To  enter  this  institution  it  is  required  that  the  pupil  be 
from  seven  to  twelve  years  of  age,  in  good  health  and  vac- 
cinated. He  must  also  be  subjected  to  an  intellectual  trial 
in  the  same  establishment  for  a  period  of  one  month,  at  the 
end  of  which  his  admittance  or  rejection  is  definitely  settled. 

The  subjects  taught  comprise  reading,  writing,  grammar, 
arithmetic,  geometry,  book-keeping,  horticulture,  drawing 
and  gymnastics.  There  are  in  it  lithography  and  tailor 
shops,  and  shoemaker  shops  as  well  as  shops  for  the  mak- 
ing of  artificial  flowers,  of  hats  and  ladies'  dresses,  espe- 
cially for  the  female  pupils.  The  teaching  employed  is  the 
oral  system  introduced  by  a  young  pupil  of  the  school 
D.  Jose  Maria  Marquez  on  his  return  from  Europe,  whether 
he  was  sent  by  the  Government  to  study  during  one  year 
the  systems  of  the  principal  schools  of  this  kind. 

In  1880  a  saving  box  was  put  up  for  the  pupils  in  order 
that  in  it  might  be  placed  the  savings  made  each  year  out 
of  the  allowance  of  twenty  dollars  per  month,  which  the 
estimates  assign  to  each  of  them  for  expenses.  Since  that 
time  the  saving  box  has  continued  to  dispense  benefits  to 
the  pupils.  For  when  they  leave  the  college  they  are  given 
their  balance  as  a  capital  in  order  that  provided  with  re- 
sources they  may  return  to  the  bosom  of  their  family  and 
start  themselves  in  the  business  they  have  been  taught. 

The  number  of  pupils  is  34,  of  whom  23  are  boys  and  11 
girls.  The  establishment  enjoys  a  yearly  allowance  of 
$19,092.25. 

INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOL  FOR  ORPHAN  BOYS.* 

This  School  and  house  of  refuge,  which  was  created  and 
placed  under  the  charge  of  a  directing  committee  in  1877, 

*  See  "  Beueflcencej"  page  446. 


406  THE   RICHES   OF  MEXICO 

fell  uiulcr  the  direction  of  and  became  dei)cndant  upon  the 
Interior  Department  on  the  1st  of  August,  1881.  The 
Government  of  the  District  sends  to  it  the  refugees  and 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  corporation  to  look  after  and  promote 
the  service  of  the  Establishment,  In  it  are  received  chil- 
dren from  10  to  12  years  of  age,  and  youths  from  12  to  14 
if  they  are  destitute,  and  in  order  that  they  may  devote 
themselves  to  some  business  or  art  and  these  may  remain 
and  receive  board  till  they  are  18  years  of  age. 
■  For  the  admission  of  a  pupil  it  is  necessary  that  the  per- 
son in  whose  charge  he  is  should  present  a  written  petition 
to  the  Director;  that  the  supposed  destitute  pupil  bean 
orphan  and  have  no  inheritance  or  if  he  has  a  father  and 
mother  that  the  latter  be  poor  and  the  former  decrepit  or 
unable  to  work  and  in  a  state  of  want ;  that  he  should  not 
have  any  disease  which  would  render  his  teaching  an  impos- 
sibility or  injure  the  other  pupils  ;  that  he  should  be  vaccin- 
ated and  that  some  person,  accepted  by  the  Director  should 
guarantee  the  value  of  the  clothes  which  may  be  supplied 
to  the  pupil.    ' 

The  primary  instruction  in  this  school  in  conformity 
with  the  regulation  put  in  force  on  the  14th  of , July,  1884, 
is  divided  into  elementary  and  higher;  and  the  teaching 
into  daily  and  nightly.  The  elementary  instruction  con- 
sists of:  reading,  writing,  orthography^  elements  of  Span- 
ish grammer;  the  four  rules  of  arithmetic  for  whole 
numbers,  common  fractions  and  decimals,  some  knowl- 
edge of  morals  and  politeness,  elements  of  drawing, 
music  and  gymnastics.  To  the  higher  instruction  belong: 
correct  reading  in  prose  and  verse,  correct  writing, 
Spanish  grammar,  the  higher  rules  of  arithmetic  for  whole 
numbers  and  fractions,  the  metric  system,  some  knowl- 
edge of  algebra,  geometry,  geography  and  history  and 
especially  that  of  the  country,  duties  and  rights  of  the 
citizen  and  political  oi'ganization  of  the  Republic,  with  re- 


AND    ITS    IXSTITUTIONS.  4C7 

gaid    to    the    constitution,   some    knowledge    of    hj'giene, 
music  and  gymnastics. 

The  arts  and  businesses  taught  in  the  School  are  :  Litho- 
graphy,  typography,  book-binding,  weaving,  carpentry, 
tailoring,  shoemaking  and  tinmaking.  The  heads  of  the 
work-shops  are  forbidden  to  exact  from  pupils  work  beyond 
their  strength  and  age.  As  a  completion  of  these  studies 
they  are  also  taught  some  knowledge  of  physics,  chemistry, 
and  mechanics  as  applied  to  the  arts  and  the  French  and 
English  languages.  The  Government  in  its  desire  to  protect 
every  class  of  establishments  of  instruction  and  benevolence, 
has  introduced  into  this  one  important  improvement.  The 
typographical  work-shops,  which  five  years  ago  were  scarcely 
worth  $500,  are  now  with  their  contents  and  instruments 
worth  more  than  $15,000.  The  dormitories  have  338  beds 
and  attract  attention  by  their  cleanliness,  ventilation  and 
good  sanitary  condition;  the  garden,  gymnasium,  carpen- 
ter shops  and  spinning  shops,  everything  in  fact  is  kept  in 
the  best  state  that  the  ad\\ancement  and  civilization  of  a 
people  could  demand.  The  Industrial  Schools  for  Orphan 
Boys  has  314  pupils. 

SCHOOL    OF    .JURISPRUDENCE. 

This  establishment  was  founded  in  conformity  with  the 
law  governing  Public  Instruction  of  December  2,  1867. 

Shortly  afterwards  the  Minister  of  Justice  assigned  for 
its  use  a  large  portion  of  the  building  known  as  the  old 
convent  of  La  Encarnacion,  but  it  was  not  formally  opened 
until  June  13,  1868. 

Formerly,  the  study  of  Jurisprudence  was  pursued  in  the 
colleges  of  San  Ildefonso,  San  Gregorio,  San  Juan  de 
Letrau  and  the  Seminario,  this  latter  being  maintained  by 
the  clergy. 

In  the  School  of  Jurisprudence  the  students  adopt  the 


408  THE  lacHES  of  Mexico 

professions  of  lawyer,  notary  public  and  business  agent, 
completing  their  careers  in  six  years  and  following  the 
studies  herewith  mentioned: 

Roman  law,  civil  law,  philosophy  of  law,  uncodified 
laws,  legal  medicine,  code  of  civil  procedure,  code  of 
penal  procedure,  military  ordinances,  penal  law,  consti- 
tutional law,  political  economy,  international  law  public  and 
private,  forensic  eloquence,  commercial  code  and  adminis- 
trative law. 

The  following  order  of  studies  is  pursued  :  First  year, 
Koman  and  civil  law.  Second  year,  second  course  of 
Roman  and  civil  law.  Third  year,  code  of  civil  proceed- 
ings, uncodified  laws  and  first  course  of  legal  medicine. 
Fourth  year,  code  of  penal  proceedings,  penal  law,  com- 
mercial code  and  second  course  of  legal  medicine.  Fifth 
year,  constitutional  law,  first  course  of  political  economy 
and  public  international  law.  Sixth  year,  administrative 
law,  private  international  law,  second  course  of  political 
economy  and  forensic  eloquence. 

The  number  of  students  registered  the  past  year  was  199 
and  178  supernumeraries,  the  former  being  composed  of 
those  who  had  spent  the  five  years  of  preparatory  study  in 
the  Preparatory  School,  which  are  necessary  in  order  to 
become  registered.  The  latter,  which  is  composed  of  those 
•who  have  complied  with  this  requisite,  may  pursue  the 
studies  of  Jurisprudence  but  without  enjoying  the  right  to 
puss  examination. 

In  addition  to  the  respective  professors,  the  personnel  of 
the  institution  is  composed  of  a  director,  secretary,  assist- 
ant secretary,  prefect,  superintendent  and  librarian. 

NORMAL  SCHOOL  OF  PKOFESSORS. 

The  Normal  School  of  Professors  of  Primary  Instruction 
in  the  City  of  Mexico  was  definitely  created  by  decree  of 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  409 

December  17th,  1885,  and  is  uuder  the  immediate  charge 
of  the  Department  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction.  The 
regulations  of  the  2d  of  October,  1886,  establish  the  voca- 
tion of  professor  of  primary  instruction  after  a  course  of 
four  years,  during  which  they  must  pass  on  the  following 
studies :  Advanced  reading,  recitation  and  reminiscence 
exercises,  arithmetic  and  algebra,  geometry,  rudiments  of 
mechanism,  of  cosmography ,  general  geography  and  of  Mex- 
ico ;  history  of  Mexico,  rudiments  of  physic  and  meteorol- 
ogy, of  general  chemistry,  agriculture  and  industry, 
rudiments  of  natural  history  and  physiology,  pedasfoo-ism, 
logic,  moral  and  methodology,  scholastic  organization  and 
discipline  and  history  of  pedagogism,  Spanish  grammar 
and  exercises  in  composition,  French  and  English,  general 
history,  notions  of  medicine  and  domestic  and  scholastic 
hygiene,  rudiments  of  constitutional  rights  and  political 
economy,  caligraphy  and  drawing,  gymnastics,  choral  sing- 
ing, military  exercises,  empiric  observation  and  practice  of 
methods  of  teaching  in  the  annexed  schools,  practice  of  the 
teaching  in  said  schools  and  exercises  in  critic  pedagocrisra. 
In  order  that  the  apprenticeship  be  accompanied  by  the 
practice,  there  are  established  two  annexed  Normal  Schools, 
one  for  very  small  children  for  boys  and  girls  from  four  to 
seven  years  of  age,  and  the  other  four  primary  instruction 
for  children  from  seven  to  fourteen  years  of  ao^e. 

The  instructions  in  the  former  of  these  institutions  is 
administered  in  three  years,  and  in  six  years  in  the  second 
one.  Aspirants  to  teachership  must  assist  at  both  plants 
counting  from  the  first  year,  in  order  to  observe  the  meth- 
ods of  teaching,  the  practices,  put  them  into  execution, 
and  then  practice  them  with  subjection  to  the  pedagogic 
precepts. 

In  the  school  for  small  children  the  following  matters  are 
taught:  Gifts,  by  Frsebel,  principles  of  lesser  things,  ob- 
jective calculation  up  to  number  ten,  notions  about  the 


410  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

three  kingtloms  of  nature,  cultivation  of  language, 
notions  of  patriotic  and  universal  history,  notions  of 
moral,  civic  instruction,  choral  singing,  garden  works,  care 
of  domestic  animals,  gymnastic  plays. 

Ill  the  school  of  primary  instruction  the  courses  taught 
are  the  following :  Reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  rudiments 
of  Spanish  grammar,  of  geography,  of  general  history  of 
Mexico,  notions  of  natural  science  in  the  form  of  lessons 
on  matters,  civic  instruction,  drawing,  French  and  English, 
practical  gymnastics,  military  exercises,  choral  singing. 

In  order  to  stimulate  the  youth  to  the  career  of  precep- 
tor, there  are  established  in  the  Model  Schools  as  many  as 
eighty  pensions,  assigned  in  quality  of  rewards  to  those 
who  distinguish  themselves  by  their  talent  and  application, 
the  pupils  who  have  obtained  their  respective  titles  having, 
moreover,  the  perspective  of  obtaining  soon  a  position  in 
the  OflScial  School  of  the  District  and  Federal  Territories. 

These  pupils,  before  their  admission  to  the  character  of 
pensioners  and  after  having  finished  their  career,  promise 
to  serve  the  Public  Instruction  in  the  District  and  Federal 
territories  during  three  years. 

The  Governors  of  the  States  can  pension  in  this  School 
the  pupils  whom  they  consider  worthy  of  it,  always  when 
these  i)upils  possess  the  conditions  required  for  admission, 
which  are:  having  taught  for  fourteen  years,  ability  and 
recognized  morality.  The  expenses  are  paid  by  the  said 
Governors. 

When  any  of  the  teachers  in  the  model  schools  are  dis- 
abled owing  to  sickness,  after  a  continuous  service  of 
five  years  in  teaching,  they  shall  enjoy  a  salary  equivalent 
to  one-half  of  that  formerly  earned,  and  shall  have,  as 
pension,  the  entire  salary  if  they  have  remained  thirty 
years  in  the  service. 

The  Model  School  of  preceptors  was  inaugurated  on  the 
24th  of  February,    1887,  and   both   the   first    professional 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIOXS.  411 

course  as  well  as  the  annexed  schools,  was  opened  on  the 
7th  of  March  of  the  following  year. 

The  appropriation  allowed  by  the  Government  for  the 
establishment  is  $61,612.35    per  annum. 

The  Model  School  for  preceptors  of  primary  instruction 
was  created  by  decree  of  June  4th,  1888,  the  former  Na- 
tional Secondary  School  for  girls  having  been  consolidated 
with  it.  It  also  immediately  depends  on  the  Department 
of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction.  In  accordance  with  the 
respective  ordinance  of  December  21st,  1889,  and  its 
reforms  of  May  25th,  1892,  the  career  of  preceptors  of 
primary  instruction  is  made  in  five  years,  in  which  the 
following  matters  should  be  studied:  j^rithmetic  and 
algebra,  caligraphy,  geometry,  cosmography  and  geo- 
graphy of  Mexico,  physics  preceded  by  notions  of  medi- 
cine, notions  of  chemistry,  general  geography,  history  of 
Mexico,  domestic  economy  and  the  duties  of  women, 
natural  history,  preceded  by  the  classification  of  the 
sciences,  notions  of  political  economy  and  of  constitutional 
rights,  theoretical  hygiene,  pedagogism,  comprising  rudi- 
ments of  general  and  descriptive  physiology,  logic,  moral 
and  methodology,  scholastic  organization  and  discipline, 
and  history  of  pedagogism,  empiric  pedagogic  practice,  and 
practice  of  teaching  and  pedagogic  criticism  in  the  annexed 
schools,  Spanish,  French  and  English,  manual  labors, 
music,  drawing  and  gymnastic.  There  is,  moreover  in  this 
school  an  accessory  course  of  knowledges,  useful  to  the 
pupils  that  desire  to  learn  the  follow^ing  matters  :  Book- 
keeping, drawing  from  nature,  horticulture  and  gardening 
Italian,  piano,  the  practice  of  the  art  of  cooking,  aguaril 
prinling,  taxidermy  and  muscology. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  corresponding  practice  in  the 
School,  there  are  in  the  same  establishment  two  annexed 
schools,  one  for  the  practice  of  boys  and  girls  of  the  ages 
of  four   and  six  years,   and   another  one  for  the   primary 


412  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

instruction  of  girls  from  six  to  fourteen  years  of  age. 
The  teaching  in  the  school  of  very  small  children  is  made 
iu  three  years  and  comprises  the  same  matters  as  are 
taught  in  the  annexed  one  to  that  of  preceptors,  of  which 
mention  has  been  made. 

In  the  school  for  girls  the  instrnction  is  given  during  six 
years,  and  comprises  the  following  matters:  Reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  rudiments  of  algebra,  geometry, 
Spanish  grammer,  geography,  general  history  of  Mexico, 
lessons  of  matters,  morals,  civic  instructions,  drawing, 
French,  English,  manual  labors,  knowledge  of  machineries 
proper  to  be  used  by  females,  gymnastics  and  choral  sing- 
ing. 

There  are  also  in  the  Model  School  for  Preceptoresses  pen- 
sioned pupils,  which  are  those  who,  having  proved  during 
one  year,  at  least,  and  after  being  examined,  to  have  voca- 
tion and  ability,  are  granted  a  pension  as  a  stimulant  to 
their  talents  and  reward  for  their  application.  Up  to 
eight}'  pensions  can  bo  granted.  As  to  the  requisites  which 
the  pensioned  pupils  must  fill,  pre-eminence  enjoyed  by  the 
preceptress  of  primary  instruction  who  have  received  their 
titles,  and  by  the  preceptresses  of  model  instruction  who  are 
disabled  by  cause  of  some  disease,  or  who  remain  in  the 
service  of  teaching  twenty  years,  are  of  the  same  nature  as 
those  already  stated  when  treating  of  the  Model  School  for 
preceptors. 

The  same  should  be  understood  respecting  the  faculties 
which  the  State  Governments  have  to  pensioning  pu])ils  in 
the  school  naming  to  that  ctTect  a  tutor  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  Director  of  the  establishment. 

Tiiis  School  enjoys  an  appropriation  of  $70,500  per 
annum  by  the  Government. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  413 


LIBRARIES. 

V.  The  establishment  of  libraries  in  Mexico  dates  from  a 
period  lono^  before  the  conquest  by  the  Spaniards  in  1521. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  in  history  that  King  Itscoalt  caused 
the  disappearance  of  all  the  written  records  of  his  time  in 
which  were  set  down  all  the  old  precedents  and  customs. 
This  he  did  in  order  that  the  people  might  not  know  what 
they  were  and  might  despise  them  on  that  account. 
History  tells  us,  too,  that  the  allied  Tlaxcaitecas  destroyed 
the  library  of  the  city  of  Texcoco  on  this  being  occupied 
by  the  conquerors. 

The  remainder  of  the  traditional  records  which  survived 
these  disastrous  fates  were  almost  entirely  done  away  with 
by  the  spirit  of  fanaticism  displayed  by  the  first  bishop 
Zumarraga  and  other  religious  who  saw  in  all  symbolical 
writings  evidences  of  superstitious  idolatiy.  Later  on  some 
of  the  historical  documents  which  the  initiated  Indians  had 
been  able  to  hide  were  gradually  brought  to  light  according 
as  the  Crown  of  Castile  gave  more  stability  and  a  better 
government  organization  to  its  new  possessions. 

On  the  establishment  of  schools,  colleges,  and  universities 
and  especially  convents  throughout  the  country,  libraries 
were  founded  and  many  of  the  latter  became  famous  in 
time  for  the  variety  of  books  which  they  contained,  books 
treating  of  all  the  sciences,  arts  and  lanofuaofes  which  were 
then  known  and  yet  withal  there  was  a  great  lack  of  books 
relating  to  the  languages  of  the  natives. 

When  independence  was  won  the  Government  set  about 
the  establishment  of  a  National  Library  and  for  that  purpose 
issued  the  decrees  of  the  26th  of  October,*  1833,  the  30th 
of  November,  1846,  and  the  12th  of  September,  1875;  but 
these  praiseworthy  efforts  produced  no  tangible  results  at 
that  time  for  internal  revolutions  and  the  foreign   interfer- 


414  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

ence,  of  which  the  country  was  the  victiai,  had  previous 
calls  upon  the  attention  and  resources  of  the  administra- 
tion. In  later  times,  on  the  re-establishment  of  the  Repub- 
lic, a  new  decree  sent  forth  on  the  21st  of  November,  18B7, 
ordered  the  formation  of  the  Library,  and  for  that  object 
the  old  church  of  San  Agustin  was  set  apart  because  by 
its  extent  and  size  it  fulfilled  all  the  necessary  conditions. 
For  the  making  of  the  Library  there  were  assigned  to  it  all 
the  books  of  the  University  and  of  the  College  of  Santos, 
which  had  been  already  suppressed,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  Cathedral  library,  books  and  documents  the  greater 
part  of  which  contain  matters  of  supreme  interest  for  the 
historian  and  composer.  After  the  necessary  changes  had 
been  made  so  as  to  suit  the  building  for  its  new  purpose, 
changes  which  cost  the  Government  very  heavy  sums,  the 
solemn  opening  of  the  establishment  took  place  on  the  2d 
of  April,  1884.  The  chief  hall  in  the  National  Library  is 
an  extensive  corridor  of  some  fifty  meters  long  by  thirteen 
wide  and  thirty-five  high.  There  are  on  each  side  of  it 
closing  up  the  arches  of  the  side-chapels  and  the  cross- 
vaults  fifteen  cedar  shelves,  seven  and  a  half  meters  high, 
each  of  them  subdivided  into  three,  which  are  distinguished 
from  one  another  by  letters.  Placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
arch  which  is  above  the  entrance  to  the  building  is  a  colossal 
statue  of  Time  in  the  act  of  flying,  with  the  feet  upon  a 
black  slobe  which  tells  the  hours  of  a  clock.  There  are 
two  larse  medallions  one  on  each  side  of  the  door,  with 
busts  in  bas-relief  of  President  Juarez  and  the  Minister  D. 
Antonio  Martinez  de  Castro,  who  were  the  men  who  issued 
and  authorized  respectively  the  decree  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Library.  Facing  the  doorway  at  the  far  end  of 
the  hall  stands  out  upon  a  large  bracket  the  Mexican  eagle 
wrouirht  in  stucco  and  in  the  middle  of  a  larixe  window 
covered  with  frosted  glass.  Sixteen  statues  of  2. GO  meters 
high  placed  upon  tall  pedestals  complete  the   adornment  of 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  415 

the  hall.  These  represent  Walmiky,  Confucius,  Isais, 
Homer,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Cicero,  Virgil,  St.  Paul,  Oregen, 
Dante,  Alarcon,  Copernicus,  Descartes,  Cuvier  and  Hum- 
boldt. 

The  two  side  naves  are  formed  into  galleries  divided  into 
eight  departments.  The  ante-chamber  through  which  the 
hall  is  entered  is  paved  with  colored  marble,  whilst  the 
vaulted  roof  is  supported  on  each  side  by  ten  columns  of  cut 
stone.  The  building  has  on  its  north  and  south  side  a  garden 
which  contains  a  railing  supported  by  columns,  on  the.tops 
of  which  are  the  busts  of  the  following  famous  men  of 
Mexico:  Netzahualcoyotl,  poet;  D.  Manuel  Carpio,  poet; 
D.  Francisco  Sanchez  Tagle,  poet ;  Fr.  Manuel  Navarrete, 
id.;  D.  Jose  Joaquin  Pesado,  id.;  D.  Manuel  Eduardo 
Gorostiza,  dramatic  author;  D.  Francisco  Javier Clavijero, 
historian;  D.  Fernando  A.  Tezozomoc,  id.;  D.  Fernando 
A.  Ixtlilxochitl,  id.;  D.  Lucas  Alaman,  id.;  D.  Manuel 
Veytia,  id.;  D.  Fernando  Ramirez,  antiquarian;  Fr. 
Manuel  Najera,  philologer  ;  D.  Jose  B.  Couto,  publisher; 
D.  Manuel  de  la  Pena  y  Peiia,  jurisconsult ;  D.  Carlos  de 
Sigiienza  y  Gongora,  humanist;  D.  Jose  A.  Alzate, 
naturalist;  D.  Leopoldo  Rio  de  la  Loza,  chemist;  D. 
Joaquin  Cordero,  man  of  letters  ;  D.  Jose  M.  Lafragua,  id. 

The  National  Library,  which  began  existence  with 
100,000  volumes,  has  now  on  its  shelves  more  than  159,000. 
In  addition  to  the  National  there  are  also  the  followingr 
libraries  in  the  Capital:  The  Lawyers'  School  Library, 
with  14,000  volumes ;  the  Preparatory  School  Library 
which  has  10,000;  that  of  the  General  Record,  containing 
8,000;  the  Engineers'  School  Library,  having  7,000;  that 
of  the  School  of  Agriculture,  with  4,000  ;  the  Geographical 
and  Statistical  Society's  Library,  having  also  4,000  ^and 
those  of  the  Schools  of  Commerce,  Fine  Arts,  Medicine, 
the  Training  School  for  Men  and  the  Training  School  for 
Women,  the  School  of  Arts  and  Professions  for  Men;  that 


41(3  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO     . 

of  the  National  Conservatory  of  Music,  the  Museum  Li- 
brary on  the  history  of  Mexico  and  that  of  the  Judicial 
Record,  -svhich  contain  14,538  volumes,  making  altogether 
220,538  volumes  contained  in  the  libraries  of  the  city  of 
Mexico  which  are  supported  by  the  Federal  Government. 

SCIENTIFIC    AND    LITERARY    SOCIETIES. 

There  are  in  the  city  of  Mexico  (Federal  District)  twenty 
societies  of  this  kind  and  which  have  the  following  names  •■ 
The  Geographical  and  Statistical  Society,  supported  by 
Federal  funds  ;  the  Natural  History  Society  ;  the  Hidalgo 
Lyceum  ;  the  Athenneum  Lyceum  ;  the  Academy  of  Med- 
icine'Society ;  the  Academy  of  the  Spanish  Language 
Society  ;  the  Society  of  the  Lawyer's  College ;  the  Engi- 
neers' College  Society;  the  Mining  College  Society;  the 
Agricultural  College  Society  ;  the  Agricultural  Veterinary 
Ignacio  Alvarado  Society;  the  Philolatric  Society;  the 
Pharmaceutical  Society;  the  Ex-Mining  Pupils  Society; 
the  Pedro  Escobedo  Medical  Society;  the  Antonio  Alzate 
id.  ;  the  Medical  Surgeon  Francisco  Montes  de  Oca  Society  ; 
the  Lyceum  Morelos  Literary  Society;  the  Mexican  Ly- 
ceum Literary  Society,  and  the  Mexican  Agricultural 
Society. 

BIUSEUMS. 

The  first  Museum  of  Antiquities  created  in  Mexico  was 
established  at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  and  some  years 
later,'in  1786,  there  was  installed,  independent  of  that  one, 
a  botanic  garden  under  tho  very  best  possible  conditions. 

In  April,  1790,  another  museum  was  (bunded  for  Natural 
History,  which  was  inaugurated  and  passed  to  tho  public 
on  the  25th  of  August,  of  that  same  year. 

These  establishments,  notwithstaniling  their  great  impor- 
tance and  the   precious    objects    therein    contained,   were 


NATIONAL    LIBRARY,    CITY    OK    MEXICO. 


AXD    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  417 

abandoned  shortly  afterwards  to  such  an  extreme  that  at 
the  close  of  the  period  of  independence,  it  might  be  said 
that  the  first  of  them  did  not  longer  exist,  and  that  the 
others  found  themselves  in  the  worst  state  of  neglect. 

In  November,  1822,  the  Government  took  interest  in 
re-establishing  the  museum  of  Antiquities  in  the  edifice  of 
the  University,  occupied  to-day  by  the  Conservatory  of 
Music,  and  a  cabinet  of  Natural  History  was  attached  to  it, 
in  addition  to  the  conservatory  of  plants  existing  in  Cha- 
pultepec  at  the  time,  which  ceased  entirely  to  exist  in  1831. 

In  the  same  year,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Minister  of 
Interior,  Sr.  Lucas  Alaman,  both  establishments  were 
reformed  and  united  under  the  name  of  The  National 
Museum,  the  law  of  April  20th  being  the  one  that  gave  it 
legal  creation  and  that  organized  it,  giving  it  a  Board  of 
Directors. 

Nearly  all  the  monuments  were  kept  on  one  side  of  the 
court,  and  in  two  halls  of  the  upper  floor  the  other  objects 
of  Natural  History  and  Antiquity  were  deposited.  Among 
the  latter  were  some  of  importance,  namely,  pictures*' of 
hieroglyphic  figures  referring  to  the  emigration  of  Mexicans, 
several  leaves  of  Maguey  paper  with  writings  thereon  in  the 
symbolic  character  of  the  Aztecs,  arms,  utensils,  objects 
belonging  to  their  region,  idols,  jewels,  ornaments,  etc. 

During  the  time  that  this  collection  was  in  the  university 
it  was  successively  in  charge  of  the  Presbyter  Isidrolgnacio 
Icaza,  —  Presbyter  Isidro  Eafael  Gondra, —  Licentiate  Jose 
Fernando  Ramirez,  who,  in  1854,  made  a  scientific  arrange- 
ment in  the  establishment,  —  Licentiate  Telesforo  Barroso 
and  Mr.  D.  Bilimek. 

In  December,  1865,  the  Museum  was  transferred  to  the 
place  it  occupies  to-day,  and  which  was  formerly  the  mint. 
In  1867  the  sum  of  $500  monthly  was  set  apart  for  the 
expenses  of  the  establishment  and  the  Director  was  author- 
ized to  do  all  he  thought  convenient  for  its  improvements. 

-27 


418  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

Since  the  said  transfer  tlie  aforementioned  Mr.  Biliniek 
and  Messrs.  Ramon  I.  Alcaraz,  Gumesindo  Mendoza  and 
Jesus  Sanchez,  have  been  Directors  of  the  Museum,  and 
Mr.  Francisco  del  Paso  y  Troncoso  is  the  present  one.  To 
the  efforts  of  these  gentlemen  we  owe  the  considerable 
increase  of  the  collections  in  all  branches  that  we  have 
to-day. 

The  establishment  is  divided  into  three  departments, 
which  are  that  of  natural  history,  that  of  archeology  and 
history,  and  the  library. 

The  sum  of  $12,000  is  annually  appropriated  for  the 
purchase  of  objects,  preservation  of  the  same,  and  for 
materials  and  hand  works  for  the  repair  of  the  edifice. 
The  staff  of  employes  is  as  follows:  Director,  professor  of 
archeology  and  history,  which  oflSce  is  at  present  filled  by 
the  director  himself,  another  of  zoology  and  botany,  an  as- 
sistant naturalist  for  the  former  of  these  two  last-mentioned 
branches, —  librarian,  — treasurer  who  is  also  secretary, — 
draughtsman  and  photographer,  and  a  door-keejDer  and 
taxidermist. 

During  the  past  month  of  January  ( 1893)  16,795  persons, 
between  natives  and  foreigners,  visited  the  National 
Museum  of  Mexico. 

There  is  in  the  country  another  museum  of  great  impor- 
tance, rich  in  carefully  selected  collections  and  the  variety  of 
its  objects.  This  is  the  one  formed  by  the  Republican  Com- 
mission for  geographic  researches.  This  Museum,  like  the 
National  one,  destined  for  the  public,  is  established  in  the 
city  of  Tacubaya,  west  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  is  visited 
by  a  great  number  of  natives  and  foreigners.  In  another 
place  of  this  work  more  information  will  be  given  bearing 
upon  the  establishment. 

The  following  museums,  dedicated  to  the  studies,  are 
also  established  in  the  capital:  The  Museum  of  the 
Academy    of    San    Carlos,    the    one   of    the   Preparatory 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  419 

School,  the  one  of  Engineers,  the  one  of  the  School  of 
Agriculture,  and  the  one  of  Medicine. 

In  some  States  of  the  Republic  Museums  also  exist,  the 
principal  ones  being  the  Cabinet  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
of  Monterrey  (Nuevo  Leon),  devoted  to  the  study  of  the 
public ;  as  well  as  the  gallery  of  ancient  pictures  of 
Oaxaca,  destined  for  the  same  purpose,  the  one  of  the 
college  of  the  State  of  Coahuila  in  the  city  of  Saltillo,  and 
the  one  of  the  college  of  State  of  Chihuahua,  both  for  the 
study  of  physics  and  history. 

In  the  Capital  of  the  State  of  Guanajuato  there  are  two 
museums,  one  for  mineralogy  in  the  State  College,  and 
the  other  for  natural  history,  destined  for  the  instruction 
of  the  public.  In  Chilpancingo  (Guerrero)  there  is  a  Pub- 
lic Museum,  in  Guadalajara  (Jalisco)  the  Museum  of  the 
School  of  Engineers,  inMorelia  (Michoacan)  theMichoacan 
Museum  destined  for  the  study  of  archisology,  ethnology, 
history  and  natural  sciences.  In  Puebla  the  Public  Museum 
for  the  teaching  of  drawing,  in  Hermosillo  (Sonora)  the 
Museum,  of  the  State  College,  and  in  Merida,  the  Yucatan 
Museum  for  the  study  of  archaeology.  These  establish- 
ments are  sustained  by  funds  of  the  States  and  are  continu- 
ally enriched  by  valuable  acquisitions. 

ARCH^OLOGICAL  MONUMENTS. 

Many  are  the  monuments  of  this  kind  existing  throughout 
the  Republic  of  Mexico,  distributed  over  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict, also  the  States  of  Mexico,  Hidalgo,  Morelos,  Chihua- 
hua, Sonora,  Sinaloa,  Durango,  Zacatecas,  Queretaro, 
Guerrero,  Veracruz,  Oaxaca,  Chiapas,  Puebla,  Tabasco, 
Yucatan,  and  others.  The  importance  of  these  treasures  of 
Mexican  civilization  to  the  penetrative  mind  in  search  of  the 
solution  of  historical  problems,  has  urged  the  Government 


420        *  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

to  appoint,  ou  the  9th  of  October,  1885,  ;ui  Inspector  and 
Preserver  of  the  Archaeological  Monuments  of  the  country, 
which  appointment  devolved  upon  Sr.  Leopoldo  Batres. 
From  that  date,  important  explanations  and  studies  have 
been  made  in  a  more  formal  manner  than  heretofore  by  the 
Inspection,  special  attention  being  given  to  the  pyramids 
and  caves  of  San  Juan  Teotihuacan,  forty  kilometers  in 
a  northeastwardly  direction  from  the  city  of  Mexico,  as 
also  to  the  Monuments  of  Tula,  State  of  Hidalgo. 

Among  the  studies  made  by  the  Inspection  should  be 
quoted  the  following;  Two  monographies,  one  relating  to 
the  celebrated  stone  known  by  the  name  of  the  "Aztec 
Calendar,"  *' Mouography  of  Mexican  Archceology," 
"  Fourth  Tlalpilli,  cycle  or  period  of  thirteen  years,"  and 
another  one  on  top  of  the  ruins  of  the  pyramids  of  San 
Juan  Teotihuacan,  published  the  same  year,  and  containing 
nine  illustrations,  seven  lithographs  of  two  tints,  and  two 
six-colored  chromos  representing  tjiese,  — two  fresco  paint- 
inc's  discovered  by  Sr.  Batres  in  the  excavations  practiced 
in  the  Toltec  City  in  September,  1884  and  1886.  In  the 
opinion  of  Sr.  Batres,  the  fiist  fresco  represents  the  mouth 
of  hell,  and  the  second  one  ditferent  tribes  praying  to  their 
divinity  for  fruits  and  seeds. 

Another  autropological  work  is  entitled  "  Classification 
of  the  Etnic  type  of  the  Zapoteca  Tribe  of  the  State  of 
Oaxaca  and  Acolhua  of  Mexico  Valley."  It  is  illustrated 
with  four  engravings,  and  was  published  in  January,  1888, 
in  the  scientific  Review  of  Paris  "La  Nature."  Another 
similar  work,  bearing  upon  the  classification  of  the  Etnio 
type  of  the  actual  Zapoteca  Indian,  compared  with  the 
cephalic  typo  of  a  scul])ture  of  their  forefathers.  This 
mouography  contains  four  lithographic  illustrations  and 
was  published  in  Mexico  in  1888. 

A  chart  in  which  is  consigned  the  situation  of  the  locali- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  421 

ties  where  the  archfBological  monuments  have  been  discov- 
ered, and  the  races  or  tribes  that  inhabit  these  localities. 
This  chart  was  printed  in  the  year  1888. 

A  work  entitled  "  Civilization  of  some  of  the  Different 
Tribes  that  inhabited  the  Mexican  Territory."  This  work  is 
illustrated  with  thirty-two  plates,  of  which  five  are  chromos 
of  seven  tints,  and  twenty-seven  of  one  single  hue.  They 
represent  sculptures,  pottery,  art  of  polichromes,  decorat- 
ive arts,  metallurgy,  musical  instruments,  arms,  age  of  the 
metals  and  mythology.  In  the  exposition  of  these  speci- 
mens search  has  been  made  for  those  which  principally 
characterize  the  type  of  each  of  the  tribes  or  races,  each 
one  of  these  forming  groups  ranking  in  accordance  with  the 
different  civilizations  as  presented  by  the  Palencana,  Za- 
poteca,  Tolteca,  Acolhua,  Mixteca,  Azteca,  Tarasca  and 
American. 

JOURNALISM    IN    MEXICO. 

The  Mexican  press  is  not  characterized,  as  is  the  Ameri- 
can, by  the  fitness  of  the  news,  nor  by  the  fine  character  of 
its  articles,  like  the  French,  nor  does  it  possess  the  univer- 
sality of  the  English,  or  debate  with  the  prudence  of  the 
Spanish;  in  short,  the  Mexican  press  of  to-day  differs 
radically  from  that  of  twenty  years  ago,  and  it  may  be 
aptly  stated  that  its  coloring  is  peculiar  and  characteristic. 

In  that  epoch  journalism  in  Mexico  recognized  no  inspi- 
ration other  than  that  of  belligerent  politics,  the  rude, 
passionate  debate  of  the  opposition,  saturated  with  the 
revolutionary  spirit ;  financial  questions  only  received  atten- 
tion as  a  pretext  to  attack  the  Government  and  principles 
faded  from  sight  in  the  presence  of  personalities;  internal 
politics  absorbed  it  completely  ;  he  who  sought  to  impress 
his  inventive  and  progressive  ideas  upon  the  country,  was 
regarded  as  a  species  of  metaphysician  to  whom  no  actual 
shape  would  be  conceded,  nor,  was  he  hardly  considered 


422  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

worthy  of  rc«civing  any  attention  whatever.  The  journal- 
ist of  this  epoch  was  more  Mexican;  but  less  of  a  journal- 
ist in  the  acceptation  of  the  term  which  prevails  to-day. 

It  is  undeniable  that  there  still  exist  among  our  press, 
and  occupying  distinguished  posts,  a  few  glorious  sediments 
of  this  period;  but,  as  a  general  thesis,  the  evolution  of 
journalism  is  alread}^  an  accomplished  fact,  not  only  in  the 
Capital,  but  throughout  the  Republic.  The  development  of 
telegraphs  and  railroads,  which  furnished  life  and  strength 
to  the  news,  has  fructified  its  first  element  of  life;  and  it  is 
now  possible  to  see  in  the  capital  of  Mexico,  newspapers 
which,  like  "  El  Universal,"  receive  by  telegraph,  not  only 
items  regarding  noteworthy  occurrences,  but  also  entire 
discourses,  and  not  alone  from  the  exterior,  but  also  from 
the  most  distant  parts  of  the  Republic* 

The  Mexican  press  is  distinguished  for  the  following 
general  characteristics:  it  does  not  discuss  party  (piestions, 
as,  in  reality,  none  exist ;  the  opposition  is  composed  of 
the  enemies  or  those  who  cherish  an  antipathy  towards 
General  Diaz,  but  not  towards  the  political  principles  which 
he  professes,  which  are  Republican,  Democratic;  rare,  in- 
deed, are  the  partizaus  of  the  legendary,  monarchical  anti 
conservative  regime.  The  press  of  ]\Iexico  gives  its  atten- 
tion preferentially  to  questions  of  finance  and  economy,  and 
at  times  with  such  vehemence,  as  in  the  discussion  of  the 
acknowledgement  of  the  English  debt,  that  it  almost 
deviates  from  the  pacific  field  occupied  by  journalism. 
This,  however,  is  exceptional;  generally,  the  questions  are 
treated  with  vehemence,  or  hostile  acrimony,  perhaps,  but 
without  abandoning  the  grounds  of  science.  From  this 
point  of  view,  "  El  Siglo  XIX,"  the  oldest  newspaper  and 


*  The  interior  service  of  Mexico  is  special,  and  is  paid  for  by  each 
newspaper  separately,  having  established  agents  and  correspondents. 
The  exterior  service  is  common  and  is  paid  ior  pro  rata  by  all  the  press, 
with  tlie  exception  of  a  few  journals  of  minor  importance. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  423 

•with  the  most  glorious  history  in  Mexico,  takes  precedence. 
In  the  opposite  camp,  in  that  of  the  opposition  without  ces- 
sation, "  El  Monitor  Republicano  "  occupies  the  chief 
post,  and  both  newspapers  receive  universal  sympathy 
throughout  the  Republic,  and  are  the  most  widely  read  even 
under  the  most  critical  circumstances.  Connected  with  the 
first  as  editor-in-chief,  is  the  most  renowned  of  Mexican 
economist,  that  great  orator,  Mr.  Francisco  Bulnes,  and 
his  notable  lieutenant,  Mr.  Carlos  Diaz  Dufoo  ;  for  the 
Monitor,  Mr.  Enrique  Chavarri  (Juvenal)  furnishes  mat- 
ter (and  his  articles  are  the  most  widely  read  of  any  in 
Mexico),  and  Mr.  Gabriel  Gonzalez  Mier,  who  although  a 
young  man,  has  gained  considerable  distinction  in  militant 
politics,  and  as  an  elegant  and  conscientious  writer. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  journals  of  Mexico  is  their 
exhaustive  manner  in  which  they  are  accustomed  to  treat 
scientific  questions,  and  in  this  respect  they  do  not  cede  the 
palm  of  superiority  to  either  the  French  or  American 
journals,  while  they  have  reached  the  height  attained  by  the 
English. 

What  is  properly  called  belle-lettres,  may  be  said  to  be 
in  a  state  of  decadence,  and  the  litterateurs  are  personified 
by  a  half  dozen  amateurs,  who  scarcely  devote  more  than 
a  few  weak  efforts,  and  a  small  amount  of  laI)or  to  this 
branch.  The  greater  portion  of  the  Sunday  editions  of 
the  Mexican  journals  is  devoted  to  the  reproduction  of 
articles  written  in  Spain  ^regarding  literature,  not  even 
disphiying  common  tact  in  the  selection  of  the  matter; 
the  same  may  also  be  said  of  poetry  clipped  from  the 
Spani-h  newspapers.  This  must  be  understood  from  a 
general  point  of  view. 

"  El  Universal  "  which,  until  the  close  of  the  year  1889,  in 
which  it  commenced  to  figure  among  the  "  large  press  " 
of  Mexico,  had  passed  through  a  series  of  mishaps,  has, 
thanks  to  the  financeering  ability  of  its  distinguished    di- 


424  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

rector,  who  is  justly  called  the  *'  Villemessant  of  Mexico," 
succeeded  in  placing  itself  in  the  vanguard  of  Mexican 
journalism.  **  El  Universal  "  furnishes  the  most  opportune 
news,  is  the  best  conducted,  the  most  modern  in  form  and 
usually  publishes  articles  of  real  importance.  Among  those 
who  write  for  this  paper  may  be  mentioned  the  learned  Dr. 
Porfirio  Parra,  chief  of  thePositivist  School,  the  litterateur 
Mr.  Ignacio  M.  Luchichi,  Mr.  Eduardo  Noriega,  the  re- 
nowned poet,  aided  by  such  eminent  writers  as  Mr.  Lie. 
Victoriano  Pimentel  and  Dr.  Manuel  Flores. 

*'  El  Partido  Liberal,"  a  semi-official  organ  has  the  most 
select  editorial  staff  among  the  press  of  Mexico,  considering 
the  staff  as  a  collective  body.  Mr.  Apolinar  Castillo 
director  of  this  newspaper,  is  the  most  universally  appreci- 
ated journalist  in  Mexico,  and  enjoys  great  distinction  in 
both  social  and  political  circles.  Among  the  editors  of 
the  Partido  Liberal  are  Mr.  Manuel  Gutierrez  Nagera, 
Ricardo  Domingucz,'  Angel  Pola,  Adalberto  Esteva,  and 
Anacleto  Castillon,  all  of  whom  are  veterans  in  our  news- 
paper literature. 

'<LaPatria"  was  the  first  newspaper  in  Mexico  to  establish 
a  foreign  telegraph  service.  Its  director,  Mr.  Lie.  Ireneo 
Paz,  is  a  politician  and  litterateur  of  great  renown;  he  has 
written  various  novels  which  are  very  much  read  in  Mexico; 
and  in  the  period  of  our  political  revolutions,  and  the 
French  intervention,  he  formed  part  of  that  group  of  valiant 
literature  beroeswho,  restingat  intervals  from  the  fatigues  of 
war,  continued  to  battle  with  their  pens  with  no  less  heroism. 
Of  this  class  of  men  were  Guillernio  Prieto,  Kiva  Palacio, 
Altamirano,  Juan  de  Dios  Arias  and  many  others. 

The  Catholic,  or  conservative  press,  is  well  represented 
by  *'  La  Voz  do  Mexico  "  and  *'  El  Tiempo."  The  first 
mentioned  of  these  newspapers  is  considered  the  highest 
authority,  when  treating  of  religious  questions,  but  it 
occupies  second  place  when  dealing  with  i)()litical  subjects. 


A2;d  its  institutions.  425 

El  Tiempo  is  more  politic  than  Catholic,  more  literary  than 
propagandist,  more  scientific  and  modern  than  its  accredited 
competitor.  Both  enjoy  an  extensive  circulation  through- 
out the  Eepublic,  that  of  El  Tiempo  exceeding  50,000 
copies  weekly.  Among  the  Catholic  journals  must  be  men- 
tioned "EI  Nacional,"  which  is  regarded  as  the  quasi-official 
organ  of  the  aristocracy  of  Mexico.  Its  news  is  select  and 
opportune,  both  domestic  and  foreign,  and  its  editorials 
are  among  the  best  written  in  Mexico.  It  was  founded  by 
the  renowned  litterateur,  Mr.  Gonzalo  A.  Esteva,  the 
present  Mexican  minister  to  Italy,  and  its  management  is 
at  present  in  charge  of  the  well  known  economist,  Mr. 
Gregorio  Aldasoro. 

Among  the  organs  of  the  liberal  press,  oppositionist,  "  El 
Democrata"  and  "  La  Repiiblica Mexicana "  merit  mention.. 
The  first  named  is  under  the  management  of  Mr.  Joaquin 
Clausel,  its  proprietor  being  Mr.  Francisco  R.  Blanco,  and 
the  second  is  managed  by  the  noted  political  writer,  Mr. 
Enrique  M.  de  los  Rios.  "El  Diario  Del  Hogar,"  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Filomeno  Mata,  is  a  paper  of  aggres- 
sive opposition,  which,  like  the  former  ones,  is  edited  by 
juvenile  pens,  which  do  not  always  deal  out  justice,  in  the 
enthusiasm  of  their  political  ideals.  Their  opposition  is 
apt  to  be  exaggerated,  but  always  sympathetic  and  in 
good  faith. 

Among  the  organs  of  the  foreign  press  in  Mexico  *'  The 
Two  Republics  "  deserves  especial  mention.  This  journal 
was  established  in  1867,  and  enjoys  the  confidence  and 
esteem  of  natives  and  foreigners  alike.  Its  editor-in-chief, 
Mr.  J.  Mastella  Clark,  is  one  of  the  best  informed  members  of 
the  foreign  element  in  Mexico  on  matters  of  interest  to  the 
country,  and  never  ventures  an  opinion  on  any  subject  with- 
out knowing  his  subject  thoroughly.  "  L'Echo-du-Me- 
xique,"  which  is  the  organ  of  the  French  colony,  edited  by 
Mr.  Samson,  has  taken  the  place  formerly  occupied  by  the 


426  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

old  "  Trait-d' Union,"  and  enjoys  a  large  circulation  in 
the  Republic.  It  contains  the  latest  news  concerning 
European  affairs,  and  publishes  interesting  information 
relating  to  Mexican  and  American  matters,  which  are 
very  well  reproduced  in  France.  The  "  Correo  Espa- 
nol,"  edited  by  Mr.  Juan  Miguel  Sancho,  is  one  of  the 
most  progressive  journals  in  Mexico,  and  follows  very 
closely  in  the  footsteps  of  "El  Universal."  It  labors 
sincerely  and  energetically  for  the  union  of  the  Spanish- 
American  race.  It  numbers  amongst  its  editorial  talent 
both  Spaniards  and  Mexicans.  *'  La  Germania,"  which  is 
a  journal  published  in  German,  is  renowned  for  its  pro- 
fundity and  the  critical  manner  in  which  it  deals  with 
strictly  scientific  subjects  and  international  politics.  Its 
editor,  Mr.  Isidore  Epstein,  is  a  geographer  and  litterateur 
of  considerable  renown.  "  II  Progresso."  This  is  an 
Italian-Mexican  journal,  organ  of  the  Italian  colony, 
recently  established,  and  is  well  received  by  the  reading 
public  of  Mexico.  Its  first  difficulties  have  been  overcome 
and  its  progress  is  constant.  Its  efforts  are  directed  to- 
wards the  development  of  commercial  relations  between 
Mexico  and  Italy. 

JScientiJic  Literary  Publication. 

The  following  papers  deserve  particular  mention,  as 
having  gained  a  solid  and  lasting  reputation,  viz.  :  The 
"Mexican  Financier  '  and  "•  Mexican  Trader,"  the  *«  Econ- 
omista  Mexican,"  the  "  Financial  Review,"  the  "  Mexican 
Miner,"  "  El  Cosmos,"  "  La  Escuela  Moderna,"  and  the 
*'  Mexican  Review,"  "  The  Foro  "  and  "  The  Agricultural 
Review." 

There  are  others  of  importance,  but  which  do  not  enjoy 
as  large  a  circulation  as  the  others  just  mentioned. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  427 


Periodical  Publications. 

Those  which  circulated  in  the  Republic  up  to  the  year 
1892,  were:  In  the  State  of  Aguascalientes,  12;  Campeche, 
6  ;  Colima,  3;  Coahuila,  10;  Chihuahua,  9;  Chiapas,  6; 
Federal  District,  133;  Durango,  6;  Guanajuato,  2Q  ;  Guer- 
rero, 4;  Hidalgo,  6;  Jalisco,  29;  Mexico  (State),  2; 
Michoacan,  6;  Morelos,  3;  Nuevo  Leon,  17;  Oaxaca,  14; 
Puebla,  13  ;  Queretaro,  3  ;  San  liuis  Potosi,  7;  Sinaloa,  6  ; 
Sonora,6;  Tabasco,  4;  Tamaulipas,  16;  Tlaxcala,  4;  Vera- 
cruz, 39,  making  a  total  of  390  periodical  publications  in 
the  entire  Republic. 


PRIMARY    EDUCATION    IN    THE    FEDERAL    DISTRICT. 

VI.  Article  82  of  the  reglamentary  law  of  May  21,  1891, 
which  became  effective  January  4,  1892,  provides  that 
there  shall  be  one  elementary  primary  school  for  boys  and 
one  for  girls  for  every  four  thousand  inhabitants.  Taking 
as  a  basis  the  census  of  the  capital,  which  is  326,594,  some 
160  schools  would  be  required  in  order  to  comply  with  the 
provisions  of  the  law  in  question.  Official  statistics  show 
that  in  January,  1892,  there  were  62  private  free  schools, 
and  195  pay  schools  with  an  attendance  of  10,355  pupils, 
corresponding  in  compliance  with  the  law,  to  approximately 
62,136  inhabitants,  so  that  the  number  of  these  public 
schools  might  be  decreased  proportionately.  Deducting 
the  number  of  inhabitants  for  whom  the  proper  number  of 
schools  have  been  provided,  viz. :  62,136  from  the  census 
above  mentioned,  would  leave  some  264,468  inhabitants 
for  whom  it  was  absolutely  necessary  to  furnish  schools  in 
the  ratio  of  one  for  each  sex  for  each  four  thousand 
inhabitants.  There  should,  therefore,  be  some  132  primary 
schools,  of  which  number  the  General  Government  should 


428  THE   RICHES   OF  MEXICO 

sustain  9  for  boys  and  13  for  girls,  -^-hile  the  Local 
Assembly  would  be  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  57 
for  boys  and  53  for  girls. 

At  the  close  of  the  same  year  (1892),  due  to  the  untir- 
ing energy  and  strenuous  efforts  of  the  Local  Assembly, 
the  members  of  which  sacrificed  both  time  and  patience 
in  the  accomplishment  of  their  task,  which  was,  however, 
a  labor  of  love,  inspired  by  truly  patriotic  sentiments,  there 
had  been  established  the  following  number  of  schools  de- 
pendant upon  the  bounty  of  the  Assembly  in  question, 
viz.  : 

For  boys 61 

For  girls 60 

Mixed... 3 

Night  schools  for  male  adults 8 

"           "       "    female  adults 1 

Total 113 

The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  was  21,159,  with  an 
average  daily  attendance  of  10,178.  Some  9,807  pupils 
presented  themselves  for  examination. 

The  expense  attached  to  the  branch  of  Public  Instruction 
amounted  to  $206,130.27  divided  as  follows: 

Salaries §108,680.11 

Books,  furniture,  etc C2,423.13 

Rent  of  houses 35,021.03 

Total 8200,130.27 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIOI^S. 


429 


VII.  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  STATES  IN  THE  YEAR  1890. 


STATES. 


Aguascalientes. ... . . 

Campeche 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guanajuato -. 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo; 

Jalisco  * 

Mexico 

Michoacan 

Morelos 

Nuevo  Leon* » 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Quer^taro  * 

Saa  Luis  Potosi. . . . 

Sinaloa 

Souora 

Tabasco  * 

Tamaulipas 

Tlaxcala  

Veracruz 

Yucatan 

Zacatecas  

Federal  District.. . 
Territory  of  Tepic. 
Terr,  of  Lower  Cal . 


Establishments  Supported 

by  the  States'   and  Cities' 

Governments. 


Average   Monthly 
Attendance. 


For 
Men. 


42 


21 
128 
136 

88 
130 
408 
484 
269 


185 

50 
225 
449 
758 

81 


106 

125 

45 

95 

165 

352 

221 

354 

141 

62 

14 


©S 


21 


20 

36 

37 

38 

103 

45 

201 

172 


89 
61 
53 
87 
249 
27 


5,134 


33 

39 

21 

41 

60 

108 

106 

1G8 

94 

29 

9 


1,937 


121 


161 
4 


2 

89 

1 

149 

16 


682 


63 


43 

167 
185 
130 
233 
467 
691 
441 


274 
222 
278 
536 
1,099 
109 


300 

168 

66 

136 

227 

549 

328 

671 

251 

91 

28 


7,753 


1,630 


1,140 

1,670 

7,284 

4,368 

9,937 

10,276 

18,321 

14,300 


12,448 
4,586 
13,800 
16,766 
30,275 
3,428 


5,583 

4,468 

1,521 

6,106 

7,03(5 

13,516 

7,861 

12,107 

10,929 

2,090 

506 


221,952 


Females. 


800 


1,300 
336 
1,853 
3,070 
7,059 
2,467 
6,425 
7,751 


7,438 
2,720 
8,03 
8,594 
12,944 
1,486 


3,390 
2,114 

528 
2,944 
2,762 
6,205 
3,582 
7,409 
6,868 
1,4 

398 


104,945 


Total. 


2,430 


2,440 

2,006 
9,137 
7,438 
16,996 
12,743 
24,746 
22,051 


19,886 
7,306 
21,882 
20,360 
43,219 
4,914 


8,973 

6,582 

2,049 

9,050 

9,798 

19,721 

11,443 

19,516 

17,792 

3,565 

504 


326,897 


Public  instruction  in  1892. 


There  are  lacking  the  data  relative  to  public  instruction 
in  the  following  States:  Aguascalientes,  Coahuila,  Mexico 
and  San  Luis  Potosi. 


430  THE    KICHES    OF   MEXICO 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  Public  Beneficence. 

I.  It  is  to  Hernan  Cortez,  the  conqueror  of  Mexico,  that 
we  owe  the  first  establishing  of  a  Beneficent  Institution  in 
the  city  of  Mexico.  It  was  named  the  "  Hospital  de  Jesus  " 
and  is,  up  to  the  present  date,  engaged  in  carrying  out  the 
work  for  which  it  was  founded.  It  is  sustained  by  the  en- 
dowment made  it  by  its  founder. 

During  the  three  centuries  reign  of  the  Colonial  Govern- 
ment, beneficent  institutions  of  all  kinds  were  established 
by  private  individuals,  as  well  as  by  the  clergy  and  religious 
orders,  which  were  generally  directed  by  the  latter. 

The  firf^t  of  these  institutions  to  be  taken  in  charge  by 
the  city  council,  were  those  which  (up  to  the  date  of  their 
expulsion,  17G7),  were  controlled  by  the  Jesuits,  and  the 
great  wealth  accumulated  by  them  during  two  centuries 
reverted  to  the  Public  Treasury,  where  a  body  was  formed, 
named  "  Temporalidades,"  to  take  charge  of  the  funds, 
which  bod}'  in  turn  organized  a  special  Board,  known  by  the 
name  of  "  Aplicacioner,"  for  the  object  of  distributing  the 
properties  and  values  confiscated  among  all  the  remaining 
beneficent  institutions. 

In  the  course  of  time  other  religious  orders  were  sup- 
pressed, amongst  them  that  of  the  Order  of  "  Juaninos," 
Avhich  also  directed  the  hospital  of  '*  San  Juan  de  Dios." 
The  properties  and  possessions  thus  confiscated  were 
applied  to  charity,  that  is,  they  were  given  in  trust  to 
special  Boards  formed  for  each  institution,  or  else  put  in 
care  of  the  bishops  who  managed  the  land  already  apper- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  431 

taining  to  the  various  institutions  in  virtue  of  primitive 
endowments,  and  legacies,  made  them  by  their  founders 
and  charitable  persons. 

During  the  struggle  for  independence  and  the  agitated 
period  which  followed,  much  of  the  wealth  belono-ino-  to 
the  beneficent  institutions  was  lost,  and  those  establish- 
ments which  survived,  whether  through  the  philanthropic 
efforts  of  private  individuals  or  by  reason  of  the  protec- 
tion afforded  them  by  the  authorities  of  the  combating 
forces,  may  be  said  to  have  passed  through  a  veritable 
crises. 

In  1861  the  secularization  of  the  properties  destined  to 
beneficent  works  took  place ;  at  which  epoch  the  city  council 
first  took  the  management  of  the  greater  part  of  the  work  in 
hand,  as  some  of  the  more  recently  established  institutions 
were  directed  by  the  Federal  Government,  and  a  few  others 
were  in  charge  of  private  individuals,  until  in  1877  a  general 
Administrative  Board  was  formed,  which  put  the  institu- 
tions under  the  exclusive  direction  of  the  City  Council  and 
the  Government.  From  the  time  of  this  concentrated 
management  the  Government  in  view  of  the  regularity  and 
economy  that  could  be  thus  exerted,  confided  all  questions, 
relative  to  beneficent  works,  to  a  Board  formed  in  1881, 
called  the  "  General  Directory  of  Charities,"  which  was 
controlled  by  a  General  Manager,  appointed  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  and  the  directors  of  the  various 
institutions  who  themselves  had  been  appointed  by  the 
Department  of  the  Interior,  City  Council  or  the  scientific 
Faculty  of  the  Institutions. 

In  order  to  enable  the  General  Directory  to  carry  out  its 
work,  a  staff  of  the  employes  was  organized  by  the  general 
manager,  composed  of  the  following  personnel :  a  director, 
a  treasurer,  an  auditor,  two  clerks,  a  janitor  and  a  watch- 
man. The  expenses  thus  incurred  amounted  in  the  way  of 
salaries  to  $10,240.00  annually,  to  which  sum  must  be  ag- 


432  THE    RICHES    OF    IMEXICO 

gregated  $420.00,  the  amount  assigned  for  office  and  minor 
expenses. 

Tlie  institutions  of  the  colonial  epoch  were  established 
with  a  view  of  rendering  help  to  all  those  that  might  be 
suftering  from  great  misfortune  —  such  as  sickness,  loss  of 
mental  faculties,  or  old  age. 

As  an  example  of  the  natural  products  of  the  march  of 
civilization,  many  establishments  can  be  named,  that  not 
only  extend  assistance  to  the  helpless  and  infirm,  as  did 
those  of  former  days,  but  that  also  have  in  view  the  devel- 
opment and  advancement  of  the  intellect  and  morals. 
Among  the  most  prominent  of  these  are  the  school  of  arts, 
the  orphan  asylum,  asylum  for  the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb 
asylum,  and  many  others  which  are  mentioned  in  a  special 
description  in  another  part  of  this  chapter,  made  with  a 
view  of  showing  the  purposes  for  which  the  institutions 
were  established,  the  hardships  through  which  they  passed 
and  the  final  general  good  which  they  have  done  and  are 
still  doing. 

One  of  the  first  moves  made  by  the  General  Directory, 
was  the  erecting  of  an  immense  store-house,  dedicated  to 
the  service  of  all  institutions  formed  upon  a  charitable 
basis.  The  object  of  this  was  to  purchase,  at  wholesale, 
all  kinds  of  alimentary  articles,  as  well  as  garments,  fur- 
niture, bed  clothing,  and  tools,  which  same  were  distrib- 
uted among  the  various  hospitals,  asylums,  schools,  etc., 
according  to  their  needs.  Besides  which  the  store-house 
contained  a  bakery,  a  candle  factory,  and  a  sort  of  tailor 
shop  where  clothing  was  cut  and  prepared  for  making  up, 
which,  each  in  its  way,  was  productive  of  great  economy. 

These  innovations  were  followed  by  the  establishment  of 
a  great  pharmacy,  fitted  up  in  the  most  perfect  manner, 
containing  the  best  utensils  and  instruments,  and  receiving 
directly  from  Europe  or  the  United  States  (whichever 
proved  most  advantageous),  all  its  primitive  substances. 


AND   ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  433 

The  object  for  which  the  pharmacy  was  established  and  the 
good  derived  from  it  may  be  easily  imagined,  which  was  to 
prepare  all  kinds  of  medicaments,  and  distribute  them  to 
the  various  apothecaries  forming  j)art  of  each  institution  ; 
iafact,  many  were  the  economies  and  great  was  the  good 
done  by  the  foresight  of  this  body  of  protectors  of  charity. 

The  preceding  refers  principally  to  the  management  of 
institutions  of  public  charity,  which  are  under  the  control 
of  the  Government.  But,  there  are  some  institutions  which 
have  been  founded  by  the  foreign  colonies,  railroads, 
religious  societies,  and  philanthropic  individuals,  that,  being 
prompted  by  a  proper  spirit  of  charity,  demanded  by  the 
ends  for  which  they  were  established,  are  managed  by 
Private  Boards  and  are  carrying  on  their  work  in  a  most 
approved  and  good-producing  way. 

In  accordance  with  the  law  of  1881,  the  General  Directory 
has  the  entire  control  of  all  the  possessions  pertaiuino'  to 
the  beneficent  institutions  which  are  made  up  of  the  fol- 
lowing: farms,  and  real  estate,  endowments  and  legacies 
(regardless  of  their  origin),  the  sum  apportioned  by  Con- 
gress, the  amount  of  $500.00  daily  assigned  by  the  City 
Council,  the  moneys  aggregating  from  fines,  or  taxes 
imposed  by  law,  in  their  favor,  and  a  few  other  minor 
sources  of  income. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  the  institutions  dedi- 
cated to  the  different  charities. 

HOSPITALS. 

II.  Hospital  of  "San  Andres."  In  the  year  1642  the 
Jesuits  erected  the  edifice  which  to-day  bears  the  char- 
acter of  a  charity  hospital,  with  the  object  of  establishing 
a  novitiate  of  their  order. 

Eight  years  after  its  establishment  it  was  closed  for 
economical  reasons,  and,   until  1676,  it  remained  without 


434  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

:iny  special  application,  when  Captain  Don  Andres  Carbajcil 
donated  a  large  sum  to  it,  which  permitted  its  beingre- 
opened,  avA  a  continuation  of  the  education  of  the  noviti- 
ates, until  the  year  1714. 

After  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  the  edifice  was  taken 
in  charge  by  the  Board  of  "  Temporalidudes,"  w^ho  did  not 
dedicate  it  to  au}^  special  purpose  until  1779,  when  the  city 
was  visited  by  an  epidemic  of  small-pox.  In  the  face  of 
this  public  calamity  the  Archbishop,  Don  Alonzo  Nunez  de 
Haro  y  Peralta,  demanded  of  the  Viceroy  the  permission 
to  have  400  afflicted  persons  brought  to  it  that  they  might 
be  properly  attended  to. 

After  the  extermination  of  the  epidemic,  the  above  men- 
tioned prelate  proposed  that  the  edifice  should  be  perma- 
nently converted  into  a  charity  hospital,  and  in  1783,  his 
solicitation  was  granted;  he  also  proposed  that,  in  order  to 
sustain  the  staff  of  employes,  the  hospital  should  be  given 
a  certain  per  cent  of  the  revenues,  proceeding  from  lotter- 
ies, prohibited  games,  and  properties  which  had  belonged  to 
the  Jesuits,  which  same  was  granted  him  in  the  year  1786. 

The  sum  raised  by  these  means  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  hospital  in  1790,  amounted  to  $1,454,657.00,  which 
produced  a  revenue  of  $66,142.00. 

The  hospital  remained  under  the  auspices  of  the  Eccle- 
siastical Government  until  1861,  at  which  epoch  its 
revenues  were  secularized. 

In  the  same  year  the  care  of  the  sick  was  left  to  the 
charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Charit}',  and  the  direction,  until 
January,  1877,  was  in  the  hands  of  the  City  Council,  at 
which  epoch  it  was  confided  to  the  General  Directory,  in 
whose  charge  it  has  reniaiued  ever  since. 

In  the  course  of  time  many  important  ciianges  were 
made  in  the  building,  in  order  that  it  might  be  better  fitted 
for  the  i)urpose  to  which  it  was  di'stinod.  T!ie  opening  of 
Xi(;otcn(  atl    street  caused   a  s<'paration  of    a  part    of   the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  435 

building,  in  which  were  established  the  General  Directory, 
the  Central  rharmacy,  the  store-house,  the  bakery,  the 
candle  factory,  etc.  ^ 

The  various  wards  of  the  hospital  are  in  charge  of  the 
most  emninent  physicians,  who,  it  can  be  clearly  seen  from 
the  small  renumeration  they  receive,  tender  their  services 
for  a  purely  charitable  motive  ;  the  Medical  Director  re- 
ceiving $50  per  month,  the  other  physicians  $40,  other 
employes,  including  the  Medical  Professors,  $717.00,  and 
the  attendants  and  servants  $359.00. 

In  the  year  1861  the  revenues  of  the  hospital  of  San 
Andres,  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  secularization, 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Federal  Government. 

*' San  Juan  De  Dios  "  or  "Morelos"  Hospital. — 
This  institution  was  founded  about  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century  by  Doctor  Pedro  Lopez,  for  the  sick  mulattoes  and 
half-breeds.  It  was  afterwards  called  "Hospital  de 
Nuestra  Senora  de  los  Desamparados,"  or  "  Hospital  of 
our  Lady  of  the  Forsaken,"  and  was  changed  into  a 
"  Foundling  Asylum." 

In  the  year  1602  Philip  III  granted  to  the  Monks  of  the 
Order  of  "  San  Juan  de  Dios,"  permission  to  establish 
their  house  in  the  New  "World,  and  they  assumed  charge  of 
said  hospital  in  the  year  1604. 

In  the  year  1766  part  of  the  building  was  destroyed  by 
tire,  and  when,  in  1820,  the  S[)anish  Parliament  abolished 
all  religious  orders  entrusted  with  the  care  and  direction  of 
hospitals,  all  the  funds  assigned  to  the  maintenance  of  the 
"  Foundling  Asylum  "  disappeared. 

Later  on  the  noted  philanthropist,  Don  Caspar  Ceballos, 
re-established  it  at  his  own  expense,  and  from  1845  tol874, 
its  direction  was  entrusted  to  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 

In  the  month  of  July,  1868,  persons  suffering  from  ven- 
ereal diseases,  who  up  to  that  time  were  occupying  a  \vard 
in  the  hospital  of  "  San  Andres,"  were  removed  to  that  of 


43(3  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

*'  San  Juau  dc  Dios,"  which  has  since  then  been  set  apart 
to  tliat  class  of  patients,  especially  women. 

In  1875  its  name  was  changed  to  that  of  "  Morelos," 
which  it  now  bears. 

It  has  supported  itself  from  the  proceeds  of  the  dona- 
tion of  its  above  named  benefactor,  which  amounted  to 
$200,000.00. 

The  Arch-Duchess  Carlota  likewise  assisted  it,  and 
her  last  gift  was  $4,000.00,  which  she  remitted  from 
Europe. 

The  average  number  of  patients  cared  for  in  the 
"Morelos"  hospital  is  150.  The  salaries  of  the  Medical 
Director  and  his  three  medical  assistants  amounts  to  $170.00 
monthly,  and  those  of  all  other  employes  to  $453.00;  but, 
nevertheless,  the  management  is  tolerably  good. 

*'  San  Hip6lito"  Hospital.  —  Since  the  year  1556 
Bernardino  Alvarez,  known  for  his  great  charities,  pro- 
posed to  relieve  the  insane,  invalid  and  aged  persons  from 
the  hardships  they  experienced  in  the  streets  of  Mexico. 
He  at  first  gave  them  an  asylum  in  his  own  house,  but 
later  on,  counting  with  the  assistance  of  some  high  digna- 
taries  of  the  church,  he  applied  for  and  was  granted  the 
land  on  which  this  hospital  is  erected.  The  founder,  as- 
sisted by  a  private  board,  ministered  to  the  wants  of  the 
inmates,  and,  shortly  afterwards,  this  board  became  a 
religious  order,  its  statutes  being  approved  by  the  Pope 
and  the  King  of  Spain.  This  order  was  called  "  Brothers 
of  Charity."  It  remained  in  charge  of  said  hospital  until 
1820,  when  it  was  uncloistered,  and  the  City  Council  as- 
sumed control  of  the  property,  notwithstanding  which  the 
Brothers  continued  to  care  for  its  interior  management  until 
the  year  1843. 

Shortly  after  its  establishment  the  institution  was  dedi- 
cated exclusively  to  the  care  of  the  insane. 

The  funds  received  by  the  City  Council  for  its    main- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  437 

tenance  amounted  to  $187,413.00  in  real  estate  and  mort- 
gages. 

In  the  year  1724  these  funds  were,  by  order  of  the 
Government,  turned  into  the  Treasury  of  the  State  of 
Mexico,  but  two  years  later  they  were  returned  to  the  City 
Council,  which  disbursed  them  until  1842,  when  they  were 
taken  charge  of  by  the  oflSce  of  the  "  Secular  Kevenues 
of  the  Clergy,"  called  "  Temporalidades,"  from  which 
they  disappeared  under  the  administration  of  Santa  Anna. 

Of  late  years  the  City  Council  and  Federal  Government 
have  been  managing  the  hospital,  as  all  other  charitable 
institutions. 

Up  to  the  year  1878,  the  insane  were  confined  in  small 
cells;  but  the  progress  made  in  this  branch  of  Medical 
Science  demanded  alterations  which  have  slowly  been 
carried  out. 

The  average  number  of  patients  cared  for  is  150,  more 
than  one-third  of  which  have  become  insane  through 
alcoholism. 

The  salaries'of  the  doctors  in  charge  amount  to  $196.66, 
and  those  of  other  employes  $207.00. 

AsYLOi  FOR  Insane  Women. —  Prompted  by  their  rehg- 
ious  belief,  the  conquerors  had,  during  the  Colonial  Period, 
determined  upon  the  establishment  of  a  charitable  institu- 
tion of  this  character.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  a 
poor  mechanic,  called  Jose  Sayago,  assisted  hy  his  wife, 
received  in  his  own  house  a  few  insane  women,  thus  saving 
them  from  the  mockery  and  jeers  of  the  people.  This 
charitable  action  having  come  to  the  ears  of  Archbishop 
Don  Francisco  de  Aguiar  y  Seijas,  he  immediately  came  to 
their  assistance.  He  granted  them  the  use  of  a  building  m 
front  of  the  church  of  '*  San  Gregorio,"  where  the  patients 
were  cared  for  by  the  congregation  of  the  Divine  Savior, 
until  the  year  1698.  In  1700  this  body  purchased  the 
house  in  Canoa  street,  which  was  converted  into  a  hospital, 


438  THE   RICHES   OF   MEXICO. 

■which  at  the  present  day  is  dedicated  to  the  treatment  of 
insane  women. 

U[)on  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  the  properties  of  the 
institution  were  placed  in  charge  of  the  office  of  the 
"  Secular  Revenues  of  the  Clergy,"  or  *'  Temporalidades." 

In  the  year  1800  the  building  was  repaired  at  a  cost  of 
nearly  $100,000.00,  which  were  furnished  in  equal  parts  by 
public  charities  and  the  Government. 

In  1824,  the  Asylum  had  a  capital  of  $101,572.00,  besides 
which  unpaid  interest  was  due  to  the  amount  of  $60, 000. 00. 
At  that  period  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment, and  its  funds  were  merged  into  those  dedicated 
to  public  charities.  In  1861  they  were  segregated;  and  in 
1863  returned  to  the  Asylum.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  had 
the  management  of  its  interior  workings  from  1855  to  1874. 

In  the  year  1825,  the  .proceeds  of  a  special  lottery  were 
assigned  to  its  maintenance,  which  continued  for  a  number 
of  years.  From  1877  to  the  present  time  it  has  been  under 
the  care  of  the  General  Directory  of  Public  Charities. 

The  average  number  of  patients  cared  for  is  180,  and  the 
monthly  expenses  of  the  management,  in  the  way  of  salaries 
to  doctors  and  the  other  employes,  amounts  to  $281.00. 

*'  Juarez  "  Hospital.  — The  Battle  of  Padierna,  fought 
against  the  United  States  troops,  took  place  on  the  23d  of 
August,  1847,  and,  at  the  suggestion  of  Don  Urbano 
Fonseca,  the  wounded  were  taken  to  a  part  of  the  convent 
of  "  San  Pablo,"  then  used  as  barracks. 

The  City  Council  had  contracted  with  the  managers  of  the 
"  San  Andres"  h()si)ital  for  the  care  of  the  wounded  sent 
by  the  police  judges,  but  after  the  establishment  of  tlio 
temporary  hospital  for  the  wounded  soldiers,  it  was  de- 
cided to  make  it  a  permanent  one,  although  civilians  could 
be  admitted. 

For  some  time  this  temporary  hospital  for  the  woundod 
was  at  •'  San  Ilii)6lito,"  but,  in  1851,  the  City  Council  pur- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  439 

chased  the  ''San  Pablo"  building,  and,  the  necessary 
changes  and  repairs  being  made,  the  sick  were  removed  to 
it.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  attended  to  the  wounded,  and 
had  charo-e  of  the  interior  management  of  the  institution. 

In  the  year  1867,  Don  Angel  Echevarria,  who  died  in 
Paris,  left  the  hospital  a  legacy  of  300,000  francs.  This, 
however,  was  never  paid  into  the  city  treasury,  which  has 
had,  in  consequence,  to  assume  the  maintenance  of  the  said 
hospital. 

This  hospital  has,  as  heretofore  mentioned,  always  been 
dedicated  to  the  care  of  the  wounded,  whether  prisoners  or 
otherwise,  remitted  by  judges  of  the  criminal  courts  or  the 
police,  as  also  of  persons  suffering  from  epilepsy,  etc.,  or 
contagious  diseases. 

ASYLUMS. 

III.  "  Foundling  Asylum." — The  founder  of  this  Asy- 
lum was  Don  Francisco  Antonio  Lorenzana,  Archbishop  of 
Mexico.  A  house  on  "Carmen"  square  was  rented  on 
January  7th,  1767,  for  the  purpose  of  caring  for  babies 
abandoned  at  birth,  as  well  as  those  brought  by  mothers 
who  were  unable  to  give  them  proper  care.  On  the  21st 
of  the  same  month  the  first  child  was  received. 

The  founder  supplied  all  the  necessary  funds,  which 
were  considerable,  and  a  few  years  later  the  Asylum  was 
removed  to  a  house  purchased  on  Puente  de  la  Merced 
street,  at  a  cost  of  $23,000.00. 

In  1774,  by  decree  of  Charles  III,  it  was  declared  a  pub- 
lic institution  under  the  name  of  "  Royal  Foundling  Asy- 
lum of  St.  Joseph,"  under  the  management  of  Archbishops. 
After  the  declaration  of  Independence,  it  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  clergy,  and  its  management  was  confided  to  a 
Board  of  Ofiicers  and  Treasurer,  who  were  appointed  by  the 
Archbishop. 


440  THE    RICHES   OF   MEXICO. 

•  In  the  year  1836  its  direction  was  intrusted  to  a  ])oarcl 
of  ladies,  who  obtained  funds  by  means  of  public  festivals 
and  collections  at  the  doors  of  churches.  In  1850,  these 
ladies  retired,  having  fulfilled  their  object,  and  the  institu- 
tion was  placed  in  charge  of  one  director  and  a  treas- 
urer. 

Upon  the  secularization  of  the  property  of  the  clergy, 
in  1861,  the  Government  appointed  a  Board  of  Charities, 
which  took  charge  of  the  asylum,  and  in  1862,  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior,  Don  Manuel  Doblado,  directed  that  it  should 
be  under  the  control  of  that  Department,  which  disposition 
has  remained  in  force  up  to  the  present,  being  as  it  is  sub- 
ject to  the  management  of  the  General  Directory. 

The  properties  of  the  asylum  were  obtained  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  upon  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  and  other 
religious  orders,  the  Board  of  Adjudicators,  then  created, 
gave  the  Archbishop  $30,000.00  to  be  applied  to  it ;  its 
founder  donated  $40,000.00,  and  the  collections  during 
three  years  amounted  to  $32,000.00;  the  interest  on  this 
capital  produced  $14,227.00,  so  that  four  years  after  its 
foundation,  the  foundling  asylum  had  a  total  capital  of 
$116,227.00.  A  portion  of  this  was  remitted  to  Spain  b}' 
the  Count  de  Revillagigedo,  and  afterwards  the  expenses 
were  covered  by  donations. 

In  1810,  with  the  view  of  enlarging  the  premises,  the 
asylum  purchased,  at  a  cost  of  $14,000.00,  the  house  bear- 
ing No.  4,  in  Puente  de  la  Lena  street. 

The  donations  and  legacies  left  to  the  Asylum  have 
reached  a  considerable  sum.  Mrs.  Hipolita  Caballero  y 
Desa,  by  will,  deeded  it  all  her  property,  consisting  of  nine 
houses,  vdued  at  $40,555.00;  in  1829,  she  donated  $24,- 
438.00  in  her  own  right,  and  $40,000.00  as  executor  of  the 
will  of  Don  Jesus  Martinez,  besides  which  two  houses,  on 
"  Pulqueria  de  Palacio  "  street,  which  had  belonged  to  the 
Inquisition,    were    adjudicated    to   the    said    asylum,    the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  441 

capital  of  which  was  then  $281,854.27,  besides  $10,200.00 
interest  clue  and  unpaid. 

Bishop  Lizana  donated  to  it  jewelry  which  was  sold  for 
$6,136,00,  and  in  the  year  1861,  Don  Jose  Maria  Eico,  left 
it  in  his  will  a  legacy  of  $8,000.00.  Don  Andres  Cervan- 
tes gave  $2,351.00.  Don  Sabastian  Lerdo  de  Tejada, 
$2,000.00.  Don  Francisco  Higareda,  $4,800.00,  and  an 
unknown  benefactor  $6,000.00,  and  even  in  our  days, 
small  donations  are  very  frequent. 

It  would  be  useless  to  refer  to  the  various  changes  in  the 
politics  of  the  country  that  affected  the  property  of  the 
asj'lum.  We  must,  however,  recall  the  generous  action  of 
Director  Don  Manuel  Payno,  who,  at  the  time  of  the 
alienation  of  the  property  of  the  clergy,  to  prevent  the 
adjudication  of  the  Institution's  property  to  others,  which 
would  have  resulted  in  total  loss,  had  it  adjudicated  to  him- 
self, maintained  it  from  its  own  revenues,  and,  after  the 
war  of  reformation,  restored  it  to  the  asylum.  The  houses 
were  under  his  management  for  fifteen  years,  during  which 
time  the  capital  of  the  institution  was  notably  increased. 

In  the  year  1874  it  amounted  to  $678,449.62,  some  of 
which,  however,  was  in  litigation  and  suspense,  leaving  an 
actual  capital  of  $303,11^8.42.  The  monthly  rentals 
amount  to  $1,081,73:  the  Asylum  received  besides  $500.00, 
from  the  Federal  Government,  the  proceeds  of  a  spe- 
cial lottery,  which,  with  donations  amounted  to  from  $400 
to  $500,  and  in  1875,  the  capital  resulting  from  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  was  assigned  to  it. 

In  1877  it  passed  under  the  control  of  the  General 
Directory  of  Charities,  which  has  managed  it  from  that 
time. 

Poor  House. —  This  institution  was  founded  in  1763  at 
the  sugsrestion  of  Don  Fernando  Ortiz  Cortez  :  the  building 
was  concluded  and  formally"  opened  in  the  year  1774.  It 
was  enlarged  in  1776  at  a  cost  of  $17,000.00,  and  wards 


442  THE   RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

wero  opened  for  the  special  use  of  females  in  a  delicate 
condition. 

One  of  its  jjreatest  benefactors  was  Don  Francisco  Ziifiifra, 
Captain  of  the  Dragoons,  who  erected  the  "Patriotic" 
school,  annexed  to  the  asylum,  and  which  was  opened  in  the 
year  1806,  the  building  of  which  cost  $500,000.00.  This 
same  benefactor  endowed  the  institution  with  $250,000.00, 
and  the  Government  oftered  to  give  it  a  like  sum  from  the 
proceeds  of  the  mines,  it  being  underf»tood  that  the  capital 
bearing  three  per  cent  interest  to  be  applied  to  its  main- 
tenance, should  be  deposited  in  the  National  Treasury. 

The  resources  of  the  asylum  consisted  of  various  dona- 
tions ;  $200.00  given  monthly  by  the  Archbishop  Don  Alonzo 
Nunez  de  Haro,  $600.00  by  the  Chapter  of  the  Cathedral, 
$100.00  monthly  by  the  City  Council,  the  proceeds  of  rentals 
and  unoccupied  lands  designated  by  the  Viceroy. 

This  valuable  estate  disappeared  during  the  war  of  Inde- 
pendence, and  to  maintain  the  institution  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  let  various  portions  of  the  asylum  and  "  Patriotic  " 
school,  which  were  combined  in  1819,  and  later  on  part  of 
it  was  torn  down  to  provide  for  the  opening  of  "  Provi- 
dencia  "  street. 

Under  the  laws  of  secularization,  or  alienation,  the 
lessees  took  possession  of  the  portions  they  occupied,  thus 
reducing  the  asylum  to  two-thirds  of  its  former  size. 

The  earthquake  of  1845  damaged  the  building  consider- 
ably, but  it  was  repaired  through  the  support  of  Don 
Francisco  Fagoaga,  to  whom  was  due  the  establishment  of 
a  ward  for  the  care  of  the  blind. 

Up  to  the  time  of  their  expulsion,  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
had  charjjo  of  the  interior  manajrement  of  the  asvlum.  It 
has  since  the  year  1877  been  under  the  control  of  the  Board 
of  Charities. 

Upon  reaching  the  age  of  Ui'n  years,  the  children  in  the 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  443 

asylum  are  tninsferred  to  the  School  of  Arts  and  Trades, 
where  they  continue  their  education  and  apprenticeship. 

The  number  of  inmates  is  generally  650,  and  salaries  and 
wages  amount  to  over  $700.00  monthly. 

Lying-in  Hospital  and  Asylum  for  Infants.  —  The 
founders  of  the  asylum  for  the  poor  had  assigned  a  ward  for 
the  care  of  women  who,  either  to  hide  their  shame  or 
through  misery,  came  to  it  to  be  delivered.  This  ward  was 
called°that  of  "  Secret  Child-births.  "  Great  discretion 
was  observed;  so  much  so  that  the  applicants  were  not 
asked  to  give  their  names.  A  medical  certificate  of  their 
condition  was  sufficient  to  secure  admission. 

This  ward  was  always  in  a  most  neglected  condition,  and 
the  foundation  of  an  actual  and  efi'ective  Lying-in  Hospital 
is  due  to  Princess  Carlota,  who  provided  it  with  everything 
necessary  to  fulfill  its  object.  In  the  year  1866  the  build- 
ing was  concluded,  and  it  was  formally  opened.  The  cost 
of  repairs,  furniture  and  instruments,  etc.,  amounted  to 
$14,314.76. 

Tue  Constitutional  Government  continued  to  add  to  this 
institution,  and  in  1869,  Dona  Luciana  A.  de  Baz  obtained 
permission  to  remove  to  it  the  sick  children,  who,  up  to 
that  time,  had  been  cared  for  in  the  "  San  Andres  Hos- 
pital. "  It  had  been,  in  honor  of  its  founder,  known  as 
«' San  Carlos  Hospital,"  but  its  name  was  now  changed 
to  that  of  "  Lying-in  Hospital  and  Asylum  for  Infants.  " 
There  has  also  been  established  a  ward  consisting  of  six 
rooms,  one  for  female  children  sufi'ering  from  contagious 
diseases,  two  for  male  children,  dining  room,  baths  and 
dispensary  and  in  1877,  following  such  a  noble  example, 
the  Veracruz  Railway  Company  erected  at  its  own  ex- 
pense another  ward  for  female  children  similarly  affected. 
For  the  service  of  this  department,  there  have  been 
assigned  a  doctor,  two  practitioners,  a  nurse,  two  helpers 
and  a  washwomen. 


444  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

The  infirmary  of  the  hospital  intended  for  the  reception 
of  children  of  both  sexes  consists  of  a  room  for  females, 
another  for  males  and  a  dining  room. 

There  are  in  addition,  three  rooms,  one  for  the  purposes 
of  a  general  infirmary  and  two  for  the  use  of  children,  the 
character  of  whose  sickness  requires  isolation. 

This  department  is  attended  to  by  a  doctor,  two  practi- 
tioners, a  nurse,  two  helpers  and  a  washwoman. 

In  the  lower  portion  of  the  building  are  located  the 
wardrobes,  laundries,  the  chapel,  the  surgical  quarters, 
the  kitchen,  the  rooms  assigned  for  effecting  cures  and 
consultations,  also  a  small  garden. 

The  department  of  maternity  consists  of  two  wards,  one 
for  isolated  cases  previous  to  delivery  and  the  other  for 
the  use  of  same  during  convalescences. 

There  are,  in  addition  to  this,  a  ward  in  which  examina- 
tions are  made,  two  bath  rooms  with  the  necessary  appar- 
atus, ten  separate  rooms  for  the  use  of  patents  during  the 
period  of  delivery,  a  habitation  for  the  portress,  apothe- 
cary shop,  dining  room  and  an  amphitheater  provided  with 
a  disecting  table. 

For  the  use  of  this  department  there  have  been  assigned 
two  doctors,  two  midwives,  two  practitioners,  five  nurses 
and  two  washwomen. 

Dr.  Eduardo  Liceaga,  President  of  the  Local  Assembly, 
is  the  Director  of  this  hospital. 

SCHOOLS. 

IV.  School,  for  the  Blind.  — The  object  of  this  institu- 
tion is  not  only  to  educate  the  blind,  but  also  to  minister  to 
their  wants  during  their  childhood  and  youth.  The  institu- 
tion was  founded  in  1870  by  Don  Ignacio  Trigueros,  who 
proposed,  })V  way  of  example,  to  educate  one  of  the  pupils. 
The  following  year,  the  Government,  adopting  Trigueros' 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


445 


project,  took  the  school  under  its  protection  and  destined 
to  it  part  of  the  ex-convent  of  "  La  Ensefianza." 

The  various  branches  of  study  duly  appear  in  the  portions 
of  this  work  relating  to  public  instruction. 

The  female  blind  are  also  educated  in  this  school,  but  in 
a  department  separated  from  that  of  the  male  pupils. 

That  portion  of  the  ex-convent  devoted  to  the  school  was 
formerly  used  as  a  city  jail.  This,  of  course,  made  im- 
portant reforms  and  changes  indispensable.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  erection  of  a  handsome  entrance  to 
the  institution. 

School  OF  Arts  and  Teades  for  Women.— This  may 
be  classed  among  charitable  institutions,  as  the  pupils  at- 
tending it  receive  their  food  as  well  as  the  special  educa- 
tion imparted  in  it.  A  part  of  the  convent  of  *'  Santa 
Maria"  was  assigned  for  its  use.  Complete  alterations 
for  that  purpose  were  concluded  in  the  year  1874.  Two 
years  later  the  pupils,  exhibited  works  of  considerable 
merit  at  the  Municipal  Exposition,  which  was  awarded 
several  prizes. 

There  are  over  five  hundred  pupils  in  the  school.* 
The  Industrial  School  at  Santiago.— The  poor 
house  is  exclusively  dedicated  to  the  care  of  the  young  and 
aged  indigents,  hence  for  many  years  youthful  transgressors 
of  the  law  were  associated  with  hardened  criminals  in  the 
same  prisons.  Don  Eduardo  Goroztiza  comprehended  the 
obvious  evils  resulting  therefrom  and,  in  the  year  1841, 
determined  to   establish   a   Correctional   School    for    the 

voung. 

In  this  he  was  assisted  by  the  general  Government,  the 
City  Council  and  the  District  Board,  which  then  existed. 

A  department  in  the  poor  house  was  at  first  assigned  to 
it,  but  the  necessity  of  separating  both  institutions  becom- 


*Vide:  "Public  Instruction." 


446  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

ins:  (liiilj'  more  apparent,  the  buildiug  called  "  Tecpain  de 
Santiago,"  was  leased  in  1850,  owing  to  the  growth  and 
the  increasing  necessities  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  the 
establishment  admitted  indiscriminately  children  guiltless 
of  any  delinquency  (who,  from  lack  of  accommodation, 
could  not  be  received  in  the  asylum  dedicated  to  them),  as 
also  those  sent  by  their  families  to  be  disciplined,  and  a 
separation  of  the  guilty  from  the  innocent  soon  became 
indispensable. 

AVork-shops  were  established  and  the  institution  was  then 
called  "  The  San  Antonio  Correctional  College." 

In  the  year  185G  the  proceeds  from  licenses  of  prohibited 
games  and  fines  resulting  therefrom  were  assigned  to  the 
College,  which  permitted  the  purchase  of  the  building  it 
occupied  at  a  cost  of  $4,000.00.  In  the  year  1877,  the 
work-shops  and  tools  were  removed  from  the  Poor  Asylum 
to  the  School  of  Santiago,  and,  by  direction  of  the  Board 
of  Charities,  who  then  had  control  of  the  institution,  all 
children  above  ten  years  of  age  were  transferred  to  it. 

A  separation  of  the  two  classes  of  inmates  was  still  more 
severely  felt  and  in  1879  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  as- 
signed to  those  undergoing  correction  a  department  in  the 
ex-convent  of  **  Santa  Maria." 

The  salaries  and  wages  of  employes  amount  at  present  to 
$8,122.13,  and  the  number  of  inmates  to  250. 

Correctional  School. —  Young  prisoners  undergoing 
sentence,  at  first  occupied,  as  has  been  seen,  a  department 
of  the  Asylum  for  the  Poor,  and  afterwards  ot  the  "  Indus- 
trial School,"  until  Lawyer  Justo  Benitez  submitted  to  the 
consideration  of  the  Board  of  Public  Charities  the  creation 
of  an  Agricultural  Colony,  to  be  composed  of  youths  remit- 
ted by  the  authorities.  This  suggestion  was  adopted  by  the 
Supreme  Government  who  contributed  $4,000  for  that  pur- 
pose, which,  together  with  the  funds  assigned  by  the  Board 
(jf  Public  Charities,  were  used  in  the  purchase,  at  a  cost  of 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  447 

$10,898.00,  of  a  ranch  situated  in  Coyoacan.  This  was 
known  as  the  ranch  of  the  "  Camile  Fathers,"  or,  "  Mo- 
moluco."  In  March,  1880,  possession  was  taken  and  the 
ninety-two  youths  undergoing  sentence  at  the  Industrial 
School  were  transferred  thereto. 

Correctional  School  of  Trades  and  Professions. — 
This  school  was  founded  in  the  year  1881,  being  located  in 
the  edifice  formerly  known  as  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul's  col- 
lege. To  its  custody  are  assigned  for  instruction,  young 
people  under  18  years  of  age,  upon  whomgubernativ£  sen- 
tences have  been  passed,. or  who  have  been  taken  in  charge 
by  request  of  their  parents  or  guardians,  for  the  purpose 
of  correcting  their  evil  tendencies  and  teaching  them  habits 
of  order  and  industry.  The  institution  is  of  a  military 
character  in  its  organization,  and  its  correctional  corps 
consists  of  a  body  known  as  the  "  Working  Battalion." 
The  scholars  who  distinguish  themselves  by  their  good 
behavior,  are  entitled  to  premiums  or  works  of  distinction, 
and  continue  to  advance  to  the  rank  of  captain,  first  or 
second  sergeant,  and  enjoy  the  prerogatives  of  their  class. 

The  library  instruction  which  they  receive  is  of  the  most 
modern  character,  and  is  given  the  pupils  for  one  or  two 
hours  daily. 

For  the  elementary  and  industrial  instruction  there  are 
classes  and  workshops  under  the  direction  of  competent 
skilled  mechanics  and  workmen. 

The  education  of  the  pupils  is  based  upon  primary  and 
second  primary  classes,  and  they  may  pursue  other  studies 
or  enter  the  shops. 

There  are  machine  shops,  iron  working,  brass  working, 
carpentry,  tailoring  and  shoe  shops. 

V.  National  Loan  Office,  "Monte  de  Piedad."  — 
In  the  year  1781,  and  with  the  view  of  benefitting  the 
needy  classes,  Don  Pedro  Romero  de  Terreros,  Count  of 
licgUi,  who  had  acquired  immense  wealth  through  the  mines 


448  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

of  Eeal  del  Monte,  decided  to  open  a  house  where  money 
would  be  loaned  on  all  pledges. 

In  1775  it  was  opened  to  the  public  in  a  large  building 
erected  on  the  ground  formerly  occupied  by  the  Palace  of 
Moctezuma.  At  first  no  fixed  rate  of  interest  was  estab- 
lished, it  being  left  to  the  persons  who  were  benefitted  to 
give  what  they  thought  fit.  These  sums  were  applied  to 
meet  expenses.  This  was  not  practical  and  had  not  a 
moderate  rate  of  interest  been  established,  the  capital 
destined  to  such  a  noble  purpose  would  soon  have  become 
exhausted,  and  as  sums  of  considerable  importance  had 
been  lost  annually,  at  the  commencement,  it  was  decided  to 
set  the  interest  at  the  rate  of  one  per  cent  per  month. 

In  the  year  1857  it  was  projected  to  extend  the  opera- 
tions of  the  institution  by  the  establishment  of  a  bank  of 
discount,  but  this  was  not  carried  into  effect  until  1880. 
Shortly  before  that,  and  through  the  opening  of  eight 
branch  houses  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  the  amount  of 
loans  had  considerably  increased. 

The  bills  issued  by  the  "  Monte  de  Piedad  "  Bank  were 
well  received  by  businessmen,  and  its  credit  was  so  good  that 
sums  amounting  to  more  than  half  a  million  of  dollars 
were  annually  left  with  it  as  "  confidential  deposits."  A 
savings  bank  was  also  established,  but  its  operations  have 
always  been  very  limited. 

In  the  year  1884  the  bank  failed  and  it  was  only 
through  great  exertions  that  the  loan  office  and  a  few  of 
the  branch  houses  were  saved  from  the  wreck  ;  of  these 
latter,  all  those  established  in  1882  in  some  cities  of  the 
interior,  were  closed.  The  National  Loan  Office  has  now 
recovered  its  credit. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


449 


sumjjiary  of  the  keport  of  the  director  of  the  national 
loan  office,  for  the  year  1892. 

Cash  on  hand  February  4th,  1893 $212,620.20 

Liabilities,  including  $6,525  in  bills  of  the  bank  not  presented 
for  redemption........    • 527.394.51 

The  central  office  and  [the  three  branch  houses  have 
during  the  year  carried  on  the  different  operations  of  the 
business  and  loaned  in  January  alone  on  26,976  lots  $158,- 
578.00,  including  $57,512.50,  on  articles  repledged. 

COMPARATIVE    STATEMENT    OF    LOANS  EFFECTED    IN  1891  AND 

1892. 

1891  1S92. 

January $184,325  00  $159,057  25 

February • 157,437  75  202,004  00 

March 165,823  50  184,336  50 

^pril                        147,588  75  155,675  50 

May 193,847  50  176,476  00 

June     197,136  25  167,763  75 

July      211,117  50  202,83125 

Au-ust 186,430  00  167,606  00 

September 231,172  00  167,513  25 

October 174,961  75  172,177  50 

November 170,165  25  •         195,040  75 

December •   1^2.940  00  173.116  50 

$2,192,945  25  $2,123,598  25 
The  total  amount  loaned  during  1892,  upon  pledges  and  ob- 
jects to  be  sold  at  public  auction  was $1,041,930  34 

CENTRAL    LABORATORY    AND    STORE  HOUSE. 

VI.  For  the  better  and  more  economical  management  of 
all  the  institutions  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of  Public 
Charities,  this  store  house  was  opened  and  placed  under  the 
direction  of  a  professor  of  pharmacy,  duly  licensed,  and 
under  an  approved  bond  to  the  amount  of  $3,000  00. 

The  directors  receives  a  salary  of  $100.00  monthly,  and 

29 


4jO  the  riches  of  Mexico 

is  provided  with  an  assistant  having  experience  in  drug-j>tore 
practice  and  two  subordinates. 

This  store  house  supplies  medicines  to  the  local  ones  at 
*' San  Andres"  and  "Juarez"  hospitals,  as  also  to  the 
*'Morelos"  hospital.  This  last  furnishes  them  to  the 
"  Lying-in  hospital  and  asylum  for  insane  women." 
Eucli  of  these  local  ones  is  in  charge  of  a  licensed  druggist 
and  an  assistant;  and,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  carrying 
out  of  accounts,  these  pay  at  stated  periods  the  value  of 
medicines  they  have  received,  into  the  general  store-house. 
These  amounts  are  used  to  replace  exhausted  supplies. 

Free  CoK^ULTiNG  Rooms. — These  rooms  were  opened 
at  the  "San  Andres"  hospital,  and  patients  who  prove 
their  absolute  poverty  are  there  treated  gratis  and  have 
their  prescriptions  filled. 

Four  doctors  are  in  attendance  and  the  applicants  may 
consult  the  one  who  inspires  them  with  the  most  confidence, 
always  observing,  however,  the  rules  of  the  establishment. 

Checks,  marked  from  one  to  80,  are  distributed  every 
afternoon  among  the  applicants,  who  are  received  and  ad- 
mitted in  regular  order  to  the  respective  consulting  rooms. 
The  doctors  may  perform  in  this  part  of  the  hospital  any 
slight  surgical  operations  they  may  deem  necessary. 

benevolent  institutions  of  the  states. 

VII.  Rare  is  the  city  of  ordinary  importance  in  the  Re- 
public that  does  not  contain  one  or  more  Benevolent  Insti- 
tutions; generally  they  are  hospitals  and  asylums. 

A  statement  would  be  too  lengthy  that  would  cover  the 
description  and  history  of  each  one  of  these  establishments, 
or  even  make  a  report  of  those  only  which  are  sustained 
by  the  proceeds  of  rich  properties  attached  to  them,  or 
sustained  at  the  expense  of  the  Local  Governments  or  city 
authorities. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  451 

The  followino:  statement  will  show  the  great  desire  of  the 
Governments  to  throw  a  generous  protection  over  the 
destitute  and  helpless,  calling  attention  to  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  States  do  not  appear  in  this  enumeration,  not 
owing  to  the  scarcity  of  these  establishments  in  these  States, 
but  because  of  the  slowness  of  the  Governments  in  not 
having  published  the  data,  or  because  if  said  data  was  pub- 
lished it  has  not  yet  reached  us. 

Veracruz. — There  are  seven  Benevolent  Institutions  in 
this  State,  situated  in  the  Cantons  of  Veracruz,  Orizaba, 
Cordoba,  Jalapa,  Coatepec,  San  Andres,  Tuxtla  and  in  the 
City  of  Tlacotalpam,  Misantla  and  Papantla. 

Directly  in  charge  of  these  establishments  are  the 
Committees  of  Charity  established  in  Cordoba,  Chicon- 
tepec,  Huatusco,  Jalapa,  Minatitlan ,  Orizaba,  Papantla, 
Tanloyuca,  Las  Tuxtlas,  Veracruz,  Jalancingo  and  Mis- 
antla. 

The  capital  belonging  to  the  various  institutions  consists 
of  real  estate  and  money  at  interest,  the  total  amount 
of  which  is  $1,163,511.00,  and  yields  a  revenue  of  $36,- 
024.21. 

The  landed  property,  the  revenue  from  which  is  used  by 
the  Committees  of  Charity,  is  worth  $513,565.00. 

The  properties  of  the  institutions  are  divided  as  follows : — 

In  Coatepec,  two  houses,  value $2,300  00 

In  Cordoba,  13  houses,  two  farms : 18,746  67 

Jalapa,  16  houses,  1  ranch,  1  farm 26,717  62 

Orizaba,  67  houses,  ex -convent  of  La  Concordia,  commons  of 
Escamela,  and  wild  lands  of  San  Juan,  two  cemetaries,  the 

"theater  Llave,"  and  the  ranch  of  Canal,  value 180,119  34 

Veracruz,  121  houses,  2  farms  and  1  ranch 487,057  63 

Total $714,94126 

In  addition  to  the  sums  produced  by  the  various  proper- 
ties and  money  at  interest  belonging  to  the  institutions,  the 
local  Government  and  the  city  authorities  donate  to  the 


452  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

establishments  from  au  exceedingly  large  fund  which  they 
hold  in  trust  for  this  purpose. 

The  Hospital  of  San  Sebastian,  in  the  port  of  Vera- 
cruz, is  probably  the  first  in  importance  in  the  entire 
Hepublic.  In  it  they  treat  more  than  five  thousand  sick 
annually,  only  males,  as  there  is  in  the  same  city  the 
Loreto  Hospital,  where  they  treat  2,200  females  each 
year. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  these  establishments  is  $135,000. 

In  the  port  there  is  also  an  establishment  where  the 
orphans  are  educated  and  assistance  given  to  the  old  and 
decrepid.     It  has  an  endowment  of  $47,000  annually. 

In  Jalapa  there  are  two  hospitals,  one  for  males  and  the 
other  for  females,  and  they  are  sustained  by  the  revenues 
derived  from  the  Jauregui  market,  the  money  invested 
belonging  to  the  committee  and  the  donations  from  the  State 
Government  and  city  authorities.  In  the  year  1886,  the 
building  used  as  a  hospital  in  Tlacolalpam  was  finished, 
and  its  operations  are  sustained  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
Jalapa.  In  Cordova  there  are  also  two  hospitals,  and  in 
the  other  places  where  there  are  Committees  of  Charity 
there  are  also  hospitals. 

The  endowments  that  they  have  are  not  only  sufficient 
to  cover  the  most  necessary  expenses,  but  likewise  to  allow 
the  constant  introduction  of  improvements,  and  the  capital 
is  still  steadily  increasing. 

NuEVO  Leon. — In  Monterrey,  which  is  the  Capital  of  the 
State,  there  exists  two  magnificent  benevolent  institu- 
tions, the  Hospital  Gonzalez  and  the  Institution  Lron 
Ortigoza. 

The  first  of  these  were  founded  by  the  learned  and 
philanthropic  doctor  Don  Jos6  Kloutcrio  Gonzalez,  and  was 
built  under  the  exclusive  direction  of  the  Government.  It 
was  also  endowed  with  the  private  money  of  the  founder  in 
his  will. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  453 

The  hospital  is  supported  by  Government  subsidies  and 
funds  paid  by  those  of  the  patients  who  can  afford  it ;  it 
also  receives  various  contributions  allowed  by  the  law,  and 
donations  from  corporations  and  individuals.  The  Health 
Council  has  the  entire  direction  of  this  establishment,  in 
which  the  sick  of  both  sexes  are  treated. 

There  is  besides  this  a  department  used  as  a  maternity 
hospital,  and  also  six  rooms  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the 
insane  —  this  last  department  receives  the  Very  best 
attention. 

There  is  spent  in  this  hospital  $10,000  annually,  which 
exactly  covers  its  necessary  expenses.  All  expenses  of 
keeping  the  establishment  in  repairs,  necessary  improve- 
ments and  the  purchasing  of  necessary  articles,  etc.,  are 
outside  of  the  above  estimate  and  is  all  attended  to  by  the 
Government,  with  unusual  liberality. 

They  treat  in  this  hospital,  approximately,  1,000  sick 
annually,  the  mortality  being  about  ten  per  cent. 

The  Institution  of  Leon  Ortigoza  is  a  private  one  and  is 
devoted  to  the  care  of  fifty  of  the  old  and  decrepid.  Its 
founder  was  in  Europe  and  there  secured  the  cajoital  nec- 
essary for  its  support.  According  to  the  wishes  of  the 
legatee,  the  exclusive  managers  of  the  institution  are  Mr. 
Valentin  Rivero  y  Gaja,  either  jointly  or  separately,  and 
their  legal  successors  will  have  the  same  powers. 

The  institution  was  inaugurated  in  1889. 

Chiapas. —  There  are  hospitals  in  San  Cristobal,  L.  C, 
Comitan  and  Tuxtla ;  all  are  in  charge  of  Committees  of 
Charity,  named  by  the  Governor  of  the  State. 

In  addition  to  their  joint  capital,  which  is  $10,036,  and 
is  invested  in  fourteen  country  houses  and  four  city  houses, 
the  establishments  are  sustained"  by  an  especial  tax,  which 
produces  $2,000,  annually. 

In  the  Hospital  of  San  Cristobal,  L.  C,  they  treat  at  the 
very  lowest  estimate,  forty  patents  daily. 


454  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

The  Hospital  of  Comitun  has  a  capital  of  $9,012,  which 
produces  close  to  $1,500  yearly,  as  it  is  invested  in 
mortgage  bonds  bearing  from  13  to  20  per  cent. 

The  Hospital  of  San  Cristobal,  L.  C,  has  an  income  of 
$18,116.49.  Besides  its  own  capital  it  has  set  aside  for 
its  expenses  numerous  municipal  taxes. 

The  Hospital  of  Tuxtla  Gutierrez  has  a  capital  of  $6,303, 
which  is  invested  in  mortgages  at  12  per  cent.  When 
there  is  a  shortage  in  the  estimate,  it  is  covered  by  the 
city  authorities. 

Besides  the  above  mentioned  establishments,  there  is  in 
the  city  prison  a  department  w'here  they  treat  the  sick  pris- 
oners with  great  attention. 

The  hospital  located  in  Sun  Cristobal,  L.  C,  called 
*'  San  Juan  de  Dios,"  in  addition  to  the  capital  mentioned, 
has  $3,000,  given  by  the  heirs  of  Mr.  Candido  Rivero,  and 
$9,000  was  added  to  this  by  this  same  gentleman,  this  is 
invested  in  property  which  he  purchased  at  a  judicial  sale. 
The  Government  of  the  Republic  of  Guatamala  owes  to  the 
Hospital  San  Juan  de  Dios  the  sum  of  $5,000.. 

Of  the  capital  mentioned,  lastly,  none  of  the  ])enevolent 
institutions  can  obtain  the  returns  from  such  sums,  but  the 
State  Governments  and  City  Councils  supply  the  amount 
that  is  lacking  to  cover  the  running  expenses. 

Chiapas  is  a  rich  State  and  the  greater  part  of  its  in- 
habitants can  allbrd  to  educate  their  sons,  and  for  this 
reason  the  preserving  of  the  health  of  the  people,  and  very 
few  are  so  poor  as  to  need  to  ask  aid  from  the  State  in 
case  of  sickness. 

MiCHOACAN,  MOBELIA,  ZaMORA,  PaTZCUARO,    La  PiEDAD 

and  Tacambako,  all  have  hospitals  whose  expenses  are  cov- 
ered by  donations  from  the  State  Government  and  their 
respective  city  authorities,  and  the  proceeds  from  various 
funds  invested  in  city  and  country  property,  which  funds 
were  donated  by  private  parties. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  455 

There  is  in  the  Hospital  of  Morelia  a  department  devoted 
to  maternity,  the  construction  of  which  cost  $3,216.00. 

The  funds  devoted  to  these  benevolent  institutions  pro- 
duce annually  $17,879.50,  and  there  are  times  when  the  re- 
ceipts amount  to  $22,740.00,  when  special  pains  are  taken 
with  the  collections. 

There  is  in  the  Hospital  of  San  Cristobal  a  department 
devoted  exclusively  to  the  treatment  of  public  women 
afflicted  with  syphilis. 

Besides  the  above  mentioned  establishments,  there  is  in 
the  capital  of  the  State  a  pawnshop  which  was  inaugurated 
in  1881,  and  there  is  a  capital  of  about  $60,000.00  in  this 
establishment.  They  make  loans  on  pledges,  at  the  rate 
of  one-half  (Wo)  per  cent  per  month,  when  in  the  private 
establishments  of  this  character  the  rate  of  interest  is  six  to 
twelve  (6%  to  12%)  per  cent,  for  the  same  period  of 
time. 

The  School  of  Arts  and  Trades  is  also  a  benevolent  estab- 
lishment which  gives  instruction  at  the  same  time.  It  is 
organized  and  operated  in  such  a  perfect  manner,  that  year 
by  year  it  shows  a  handsome  profit  over  expenses.  From 
the  surplus  derived  from  the  investments  of  its  funds  and 
from  the  school  of  instruction,  it  was  proposed  at  one  time 
to  increase  the  capital  of  the  pawnshop,  but  the  idea  was 
not  carried  out.  The  pawnshop  not  only  earns  enough  to 
cover  all  expenses,  but  pays  a  considerable  profit  yearly, 
hence,  in  the  opinion  of  the  managers  of  the  pawnshop, 
such  a  step  was  not  deemed  necessary.  It  is  calculated 
at  present,  that  the  capital  of  the  pawnshop  is  $60,000.00, 
as  above  said,  while  it  began  its  operations  with  only 
$35,000.00. 

Tabasco.  — There  is  a  hospital  in  San  Juan  Bautista,  the 
capital  of  this  State,  whose  operations  cost  $15,000.00 
annually  and  they  treat  1,700  people  in  the  same  period  of 
time.     This  building  is  very    commodious,   because   they 


456  THE   LICIIES   OF  MEXICO 

have  united  to  the  building  donated  by  the  Government, 
other  buildings  willed  for  this  purpose  by  Mr.  Jose  Pulido 
Carreiio. 

The  Government  of  Tabasco,  like  the  greater  part  of  the 
other  States,  was  contemplating  increasing  the  donations 
to  this  benevolent  institution,  but  it  did  not  do  so  because 
it  was  found  that  the  establishment  was  giving  perfect  sat- 
isfaction with  its  present  financial  arrangements  for  its 
support. 

SoNORA. —  There  are  in  this  State  three  hospitals ;  one  at 
Hermosillo,  Alamos  and  Guaymas.  In  addition  there  is  in 
the  city  of  Hermosillo  a  pawnshop  which  yields  sufficient 
profit  to  slowly  improve  these  establishments.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  say  which  of  these  is  the  best  —  but  it  is  sufficient 
to  say  that  all  are  satisfying  the  local  needs. 

The  hospital  of  Guaymas  was  constructed  at  a  cost  of 
$17,112,00,  which  was  furnished  by  various  private  parties, 
the  State  and  City  Governments. 

The  hospital  in  Alamos  is  supported  by  the  people  of  the 
town,  who  have  voluntarily  subscribed  a  monthly  sum  for 
this  purpose.  The  small  amount  lacking  to  carry  on  the 
establishment  is  furnished  by  the  towni  authorities. 

Guerrero. —  The  private  associations,  assisted  by  the 
respective  city  governments,  sustain  infirmaries  and  asylums 
in  perhaps  all  of  the  towns  of  this  State,  where  the  popu- 
lation exceeds  5,000. 

In  parts  of  the  State  where  the  population  is  scattered, 
there  are  no  establishments  worthy  of  mention ;  nevertheless, 
there  is  not  an  abandoned  infant,  orphan  or  intirm  person, 
but  who  will  receive  immediate  protection  from  the  local 
authorities,  private  associations  of  chanty,  or  benevolent 
religious  societies. 

CoLiMA. — The  City  Council  of  this  capital  have  set  aside 
$10,000.00  annually  for  the  use  of  the  public  hospital  es- 
tablished in  that  ])laco.     The  philanthropic  public  donate 


AND   ITS   INSTITUTIONS.  457 

annually  $3,000  or  $4,000  for  the  support  of  the  sick  and 
needy,  either  young  or  old. 

Guanajuato. —  The  capital  of  this  State  has  property 
devoted  entirely  to  the  use  of  benevolent  establishments 

Valued  at $72,49 1  24 

Silao,  a  city  of  the  same  State,  has , 31,136  00 

Leon 61,710  00 

San  Miguel  AUende 13,129  00 

.    Total $178,466  24 

Besides  these  amounts  devoted  to  the  Benevolent  Institu- 
tions, the  city  authorities  of  Leon  donate  annually  $1,200.00 
to  their  local  institution  ;  Silao  donates  $600.00  for  the 
some  purpose  and  there  are  various  other  sums  which  we 
cannot  now  name,  donated  by  the  city  authorities  of  other 
places  for  this  good  work. 

In  addition  to  the  benevolent  establishments  sustained  by 
the  funds  and  donations  before  mentioned,  there  is  estab- 
lished in  Leon  a  pawnshop,  whose  capital  is  $30,000.00. 
It  produces  a  handsome  profit  which  is  devoted  to  sustain- 
ing the  hospital  of  *'  San  Juan  de  Dios,"  located  in  the 
above  mentioned  city. 

There  are  in  this  State  ten  hospitals  and  two  poorhouses, 
one  in  Guanajuato  and  the  other  in  Silao. 

There  is  in  Guanajuato  a  foundling  hospital  and  a  home 
for  reformed  women. 

The  city  and  State  Governments,  and  notable  private  par- 
ties, donate  heavily,  which  sums  united  with  the  proceeds 
derived  from  their  properties,  are  stifficient  to  conduct 
these  institutions  in  a  splendid  manner. 

DuRANGO.  —  There  are  three  large  benevolent  establish- 
ments in  this  State  —  the  public  hospital,  the  poorhouse  of 
San  Carlos,  and  the  pawnshop.  To  the  first  of  these  the 
State   Government  donates    $8,200.00  annually,   which  is 


458  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

sufficient  to  give  proper  attention  to  the  sick,  the  wounded 
and  the  insane. 

The  poorhouse  of  San  Carlos  was  built  and  is  sustained 
by  private  parties.  The  State  Government  contributes  for 
its  expenses  only  $1,000,00  annually.  A  benevolent  com- 
mittee attends  to  the  distribution  of  the  money  devoted  to 
these  establishments.  The  same  benevolent  committee  in 
1873  ori^anized  a  pawnshop  with  a  small  capital,  which 
has  been  constantly  increasing,  having  now  a  capital  of 
$30,000.00;  the  profits  from  this  pawnshop  are  used  for 
benevolent  2")uiposes  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  establishments 
before  mentioned. 

QuERETARO.  —  lu  1881  there  was  created  a  committee 
which  bears  the  name  of  Vergara,  in  whose  care  is  placed 
all  the  benevolent  institutions,  which  are  sustained  by 
property  left  by  various  private  benefactors,  such  as  Sefiora 
Josefa  Vergara,  Don  Francisco  Fagoaga,  Don  Jose  Perez 
Arce,  and  several  others. 

The  State  Government  gives  to  the  committee  annually 
$10,000.00,  which  is  devoted  to  the  same  establishments. 

The  capital  consists  of  $52,000.00  invested  at  various 
rates  of  interest,  $24,000.00  in  houses,  and  the  rest, 
$85,000,  consists  in  various  lands  and  cash. 

In  this  hospital  they  treat  1,200  sick  annually,  the  mor- 
tality being  fifteen  per  cent.  Among  the  wounded,  who 
constitute  a  third  part  of  the  patients,  the  mortality  is  only 
five  per  cent.  This  difference  is  notable  and  the  cause 
is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  sick  do  not  seek  a 
bed  in  the  hospital  until  their  illness  is  very  grave  — 
frequently  they  die  very  soon  after  entering  the  hospital. 

In  the  same  city  of  Queretaro  there  is  an  institution 
where  they  maintain  and  educate  120  homeless  cliildren, 
besides  which  they  feed  from  90  to  100  poor  who  do  not 
live  in  the  establishment. 

In  the  important  city  of  San  Juan  del  Kio,  of  this  State, 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  459 

there  is  a  hospital  which  has  $40,000.00  in  property  and  a 
donation  of  $1,^00  to  $1,800  given  by  the  city  authorities. 
This  hospital  treats  150  sick  annually  and  the  expense  is 
approximately  $2,000.00  for  the  same  leni^th  of  time. 

MissManuela  Gomez  de  la  Cortina  y  Adalid  left  a  legacy 
of  $3,000.00  for  the  foundation  of  a  hospital  in  the  Villa  of 
Colon,  district  of  Toliman. 

Chihuahua. —  The  activity  of  the  Private  Benevolent 
Committees  and  the  facilities  that  the  inhabitants  of  this 
State  have  for  the  distribution  of  the  necessaries  of  life, 
has  relieved  the  State  Government  from  devoting  large 
sums  of  money  for  the  sustainment  of  benevolent  insti- 
tutions. 

The  city  authorities  of  the  capital  of  the  State  have 
donated  $300.00  monthly  to  the  public  hospital  where  they 
treat  fifteen  to  twenty  sick. 

In  1888,  Mr.  Juan  Terrazas,  proposed  the  erection  of  an 
orphan  asylum  and  a  school  of  correction,  and  in  a  very 
short  time  $2,200.00  was  collected  from  private  parties  to 
begin  the  work. 

As  an  example  of  the  activity  of  private  benevolence,  we 
relate  the  fact  that  in  the  city  of  Chihuahua,  which  contains 
a  small  number  of  inhabitants,  they  collected  $10,300.00 
to  help  the  flood  sufferers  of  Leon  and  Silao,  in  the  year 
1888. 

Hidalgo. —  There  are  hospitals  in  Pachuca,  Actopan, 
Huichapan,  Ixmiquilpan,  Tula,  Tulancingo,  Zimapan,  and 
at  Atotonilco. 

The  hospital  in  Huichapan  is  sustained  by  Mr.  Jose  Maria 
Chavez  Macotela,  and  the  others  by  money  given  by  the 
Municipalities  and  State  Government,  which  spend  in 
sustaining  these  places  $5,500.00  annually. 

The  proceeds  from  the  funds  that  was  given,  by  the  Ha- 
cienda of  Coscotitlan,  to  the  hospital  of  Pachuca,  the  gifts 


4G0  THE  RICHES  of  Mexico 

and  tlic  donations  of  the  city  covered  the  rest  of  the 
expenses.  They  treat  annually  1,500  to  1,700  sick,  among 
whom  the  mortality  is  nine  per  cent. 

In  the  Hospital  of  Zimapan  they  onl}'-  treat  the  wounded 
sent  there  by  the  police  or  the  courts. 

MoRELOS. —  Each  leading  town  of  a  district  has  a  hospi- 
tal hut  the  principal  ones  arc  those  of  Cuernavaca,  Yautepec, 
Cuautla,  Tetecula  and  Tonacalopec.  These  are  sustained 
by  the  State  Government  and  city  authorities,  and  are  in 
charge  of  employes  or  benevolent  committees. 

In  the  Hospital  of  Ciiernavaca there  has  been  established 
since  1889,  a  maternity  hospital,  which  is  sustained  by  a 
society  of  ladies,  aided  by  the  State  Government ;  from 
900  to  1,000  sick  are  treated  annually.  The  mortality  is 
very  high,  reaching  twenty  per  cent. 

Jalisco. —  Private  benevolent  societies  sustain  numerous 
establishments  scattered  among  the  cities  and  towns  of  the 
State.  The  State  Government  and  city  authorities  only 
contribute  small  amounts  to  cover  the  expenses. 

In  Guadalajara,  the  capital  of  the  State,  there  is  a  home 
for  the  poor,  and  the  hospital  of  Belem. 

These  two  establishments  were  formerl}'  assisted  by  the 
Sisters  of  Charity,  of  the  Catholic  clergy,  who  gave 
$7,000.00  annually  for  their  sustainment.  When  the  above 
named  were  expelled  from  the  country  these  establishments 
were  left  in  charge  of  the  Government. 

The  Government  donated  to  these  establishments  a  spe- 
cial tax,  derived  from  leaf  tobacco,  a  third  i)art  of  the  fines 
and  commutation  of  punishments. 

The  founders  of  these  two  establishments  were  the  philan- 
thropists, Alcalde  and  Cabafias. 

In  Lagos,  a  large  and  important  city  in  this  State,  there 
is  a  good  hospital,  sustained  by  Mr.  Lario.  In  Sayula 
there   is  another  establishment  of  the  same  kind,  sustained 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  4G1 

by  a  public  tax  on  the  city  and  $1,700.00  annually  given 
by  the  Government  and  an  especial  tax  on  packages,  created 
especially  for  the  use  of  this  place. 

Mrs  Alva  y  Mazuca  left  in  her  will  a  hacienda,  the  pro- 
ceeds from  which  were  to  be  devoted  to  sustaining  the 
hospital  in  Teocaltiche.  Besides  these  establishments  enum- 
erated, there  exists  in  Guadalajara  a  school  of  arts  and 
trades,  which  is  not  only  an  educational  establishment,  but 
also  one  of  beneficence. 

The  management  is  conferred  to  a  special  committee  and 
has  for  its  sustaiument  the  proceeds  of  $36,000.00,  invested 
at  six  per  cent,  and  besides  it  has  from  the  Government 
$750  monthly.  In  this  establishment  they  maintain  and 
educate  160  persons. 

Mexico. —  Toluca,  Jilotepec  and  Tlalnepantla,  have 
hospitals  subject  to  a  benevolent  committee,  who  have 
charge  of  the  properties  belonging  to  the  institution,  the 
proceeds  of  which,  together  mth  the  subsidies  given  by  the 
Government,  are  devoted  to  these  institutions. 

In  Toluca,  the  capital  of  the  State,  there  is,  besides  a 
hospital,  a  poorhouse  for  bo^'S  and  an  asjium  for  oirls. 

These  establishments  are  sustained  by  $28,000.00  annu- 
ally and  the  returns  from  the  property  of  the  benevolent 
associations  $80,000.00,  besides  $6,500.00,  $3,000.00  and 
$800.00  left  in  the  wills  of  private  parties,  to  assist  the 
poor  in  Atla,  Camulco  y  San  Felipe,  Jocotitlan  and  Ziua- 
catepec. 

In  the  hospital  of  Toluca  they  treat  annually  800  sick. 

In  the  infirmary  they  educate  41  indoors  and  100  outside, 
and,  in  the  asjdum,  27  girls  indoors  and  100  outdoors. 
Both  of  these  establishments  have  besides  pensioned  pupils 
whose  numbers  vary  considerably. 

Aguascalientes.  —  Six  hundred  sick  are  treated  annu- 
ally in  the  hospital  established  in  the  town  of  the  same 
name.     Its  annual  expense  is  $6,000.00,  which  is  defrayed 


462  Tin;  kiches  of  Mexico 

by  the  State  Government,  city  authorities  and  the  jn-o- 
ceeds  of  the  property  of  the  institution,  which  are  $50.00 
moulhl}'. 

In  the  year  1883  there  was  inaugurated  a  pawnshop, 
with  money  furnished  by  the  Government  and  several 
private  i)arties,  who  let  them  have  it  at  a  rate  of  five  per 
cent  annually  ;  the  proceeds  of  the  pawnshop  are  not  sufii- 
cient  to  cover  the  expenses,  but  the  city  and  State  Govern- 
ments furnish  what  is  lacking. 

Oaxaca.  —  A  society  of  ladies  attend  to  the  public  benev- 
olent institutions  of  this  State,  having  for  this  purpose 
branch  establishments  in  Tehuantepec  andJuchitan.  The 
establishments  named  above  are  in  Oaxaca,  a  hospital  and 
an  infirmary  and  a  home  of  correction  ;  in  Yautepec  a  pest- 
house. 

The  proceeds  which  the  society  controls  cover  the  neces- 
sary expenses  of  the  establishments  mentioned  above  and 
are  from  $12,000.00  to  $14,000.00,  and  with  this  small 
sum  they  are  able  to  treat  more  than  2,000  sick  in  the 
hospitals,  attend  to  64  children  in  the  infirmary,  and  in 
addition  to  this  they  have  a  department  for  mendicant  and 
abandoned  children  in  the  same  infirmary. 

The  i)est-house  of  Yautepec  was  established  with  the 
object  of  attending  to  strangers  who  might  contract  dis- 
eases on  account  of  the  bad  hygienic  conditions  of  the  coun- 
try. The  Government  having  learned  the  cause  of  so  much 
sickness,  it  introduced  better  drainage  to  the  cemeteries, 
and  this  at  once  caused  considerable  improvement  in  the 
public  health. 

Tamaulipas.  —  In  the  ports  of  Tampico  and  Matamoros 
there  are  hospitals.  In  the  first  named  thoy  treat  about 
1,000  sick  annually,  and  in  that  of  Matamoros  about  300. 

The  city  authorities  and  the  Government  of  the  State 
furnish  the  necessary  funds  for  sustaining  these  places. 

In  the  Ciudad  Victoria,  the  capital  of  the  State,  there  is 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  4G3 

not  as  yet  a  hospital,  but  they  have  already  put  aside  var- 
ious sums  for  the  erection  of  one. 

Zacatecas.  —  The  State  Government  sets  aside  $75,240 
to  sustain  benevolent  establishments,  which  are  two  pub- 
lic hospitals,  an  asylum  for  boys,  an  asylum  for  the  .poor 
and  a  pawnshop.  There  is,  besides,  in  Jerez  or  Ciudad 
Garcia  another  hospital. 

In  the  asylum  for  boys  they  maintain  and  educate  400 
boys,  using  for  this  purpose  $40,000  annually.  Annexed  to 
this  establishment  is  an  asylum  for  girls,  where  they  educate 
300  and  whose  expenses  are  $14,000  annually.  These 
establishments  have  three  pawnshops  whose  profits  are 
devoted  to  the  sustainment  of  these  institutions,  and  a  small 
college  in  Sombrerete,  where  they  educate  from  40  to  50 
children. 

The  asylum  for  the  poor  is  situated  on  the  summit  of  the 
Bufa  Mountain.  The  City  Government  donates  the  neces- 
sary sum  for  the  sustaining  of  fifty  or  sixty  poor. 

The  Public  Hospital  has  an  endowment  of  $25,000  and 
they  constantly  treat  2,000  sick. 

At  present  they  are  building  an  edifice  which  will  cost 
$300,000,  to  be  used  as  a  hospital. 


PRIVATE    CHARITIES. 

VIII.  There  are  in  the  Republic  a  number  of  charita- 
ble, institutions  dependent  upon  and  sustained  b}'  private 
charity,  of  both  a  religious  and  secular  character.  Relative 
to  the  said  Charities  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  we  quote  the 
report  of  Mr.  Francisco  Diaz  de  Leon,  for  February,  1893, 
as  follows : 

Asyhan  for  Mendicants.  During  the  week  of  January 
29th,  1893,  in  this  institution  were  69  aged  males  and  96 
aged  females;  boys,   77,    and  girls,    71,  a  total    of  313. 


464: 


THE    KICHES    OF   MEXICO 


The  week  of  January  30th  to  February  5th  entered  the  in- 
stitution three  men,  three  women  and  two  girls,  and  de- 
parted therefrom  four  men  and  four  girls;  remaining,  313. 
Tho  average  daily  attendance  at  the  school  was  98  boys 
and  68  girls;  attending  the  work  rooms,  29  boys  and  16 
girls. 

The  Public  Dromitory  during  same  week  gave  shelter  to 
1,065  men  and  213  boys.  At  the  Charity  Establishment 
of  Tacubaya,  about  four  miles  from  the  city  of  Mexico, 
were  received  245  poor  people  and  the  children  of  the 
Charity  Schools  were  fed  180  breakfasts  and  186  dinners. 


Mex.  A.  T.  D.  Los  Siglos. 


INDIANS   OF  TEHUANTEPEC    (OAXACA). 


AND  ITS   INSTITUTIONS. 


465 


CHAPTEE  lY. 

HEALTH   AND    HYGIENE. 
SANITARY    CONDITIONS    OF   THE    3IEXICAN    REPUBLIC. 

I.  There  are  still  many  persons  who  exaggerate  the  in- 
salubrity of  the  Mexican  climate,  although  it  is  ouly  fair 
to  say  that  the  number  is  being  rapidly  reduced. 

The  diseases  which  are  most  prevalent  in  the  Eepublic 
are  not  generally  mortal,  as  for  example  the  *'  Mai  del 
Pinto,"  amongst  the  cutaneous  diseases,  intermittent  fevers, 
proceeding  from  malaria,  small-pox  and  dysentry.  Even 
typhus  and  pneumonia  do  not  assume  the  same  dangerous 
character  in  the  whole  of  the  Republic,  and  in  most  parts 
they  are  treated  with  domestic  remedies. 

The  differences  of  climates  and  altitudes,  as  well  as  the 
diversity  of  soils,  food,  ways  of  living,  etc.,  render  it 
almost  impossible  to  locate  the  prevalence  of  these  diseases 
in  o-eographical  zones.  Thus,  we  frequently  find  that  after 
traveling  only  a  short  distance,  of  some  twenty  kilometres, 
we  reach  a  physiological  condition  completely  distinct  from 
that  which  we  have  left,  and  with  the  change  all  evils  per- 
taining to  the  latter  disappear  as  if  by  enchantment. 

Typhus  fever,  which  is  so  much  spoken  of  by  those  per- 
sons who  consider  our  territory  so  unhealthy,  really  does 
not  cause  the  same  amount  of  mortality  that  it  does  in  other 
parts.  Kor  is  it  found  with  the  same  intensity  in  all  classes 
of  society.  Typhus  fever  always  follows  an  unclean  con- 
dition, and  for  that  reason  in  the  ethiology  of  this  disease, 
three  principal  causes  have  been  pointed  out  in  Mexico,  viz. : 
1st.  The  aglomeration  of  large  numbers  of  people  in  poorly 

30 


466  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

ventilated  houses.  2d.  Hunger,  filth,  and  the  other  circum- 
stances that  constitute  the  so-called  physiological  poverty. 
3d.  The  accumulation  of  animal  refuse  or  excreta  in  a 
state  of  fermentation. 

Yelloiu  fever  is  another  of  the  bugbears  with  which  for- 
eigners have  been  frightened.  This  disease  did  not 
originate  in  Veracruz,  as  is  commonly  said,  but,  according 
to  Father  Alegro,  was  brought  to  that  port  for  the  first 
time  in  the  year  1699  by  an  English  ship  containing  a  con- 
signment of  negro  slaves.  In  1725,  accordingto  Clavigero, 
yellow  fever  was  as  yet  unknown  in  these  countries. 

According  to  Doctor  Domingo  Orvafianos,  the  zone  with- 
in which  this  disease  is  prevalent  is  limited  to  a  compara- 
tively insignificant  portion  of  our  territory,  and  comprises 
the  Canton  of  Veracruz  in  the  State  of  that  name,  the 
district  of  Frontera  in  Tabasco,  those  of  Carmen  and  Cam- 
peche  in  Campeche,  and  those  of  Unucuia,  Progreso, 
Timax,  Tizimin  and  Valladolid  in  Yucatan. 

Doctor  Charles  Heinemann,  who. has  resided  many  years 
in  Veracruz,  is  of  the  opinion  that  yellow  fever  cannot  be 
considered  as  presenting  all  the  characterists  of  a  true 
endemic  disease,  except  in  the  following  towns:  Veracruz, 
Alvarado,  Tlacotalpam,  Laguna  and  Campeche.  Apart 
from  these  localities,  the  disease  rarely  makes  its  appear- 
ance, and  then  only  in  an  epidemical  form. 

The  above  will  show  how  unjustifiable  is  the  alarm 
caused  by  those  people,  who,  perha[)s  with  evil  intentions 
rather  than  with  scientific  knowledge,  assert  that  yellow 
fever  is  a  continuous  menace  against  the  lives  of  people 
immigrating  to  the  country. 

/S'//m//-^>o.x*  assumes  a  serious  character  only  on  rare  occa- 
sions, and  in  certain  sjjecific  localities  :  IMalaria  only  causes 
a  limited  number  of  deaths,  the  greater  part  of  which  are 
amongst  the  very  lowest  class  of  our  society  ;  and  the  same 
may  be  said  of  dysentery. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  467 

With  respect  to  Pneumonia,  it  is  only  found  in  the  cold 
regions  of  the  country,  and  our  physicians  consider  it  one 
of  the  easiest  diseases  to  treat,  as  it  only  becomes  dangerous 
when  it  is  complicated  with  typhus  or  other  disea,ses  of  a 
similar  character. 

From  the  above  assertions,  the  following  conclusions  are 
reached :  First.  That  the  climate  of  Mexico  is  generally 
temperate.  Second.  That  the  climate  varies  within  a  very 
small  extent  of  territory,  rendering  it  exceedingly  easy  for 
the  immigrant  to  find  the  climate  which  he  desires;  and. 
Finally.  That  the  prevailing  diseases  in  'this  country  are 
not  of  a  sufficiently  dangerous  character  to  alarm  any 
person,  nor  are  they  any  worse  than  those  found  in  other 
healthy  localities  of  this  planet.  Consequently,  it  may  be 
inferred  that  the  sanitary  conditions  of  Mexico  are  excep- 
tionally favorable. 

II.  The  development  of  the  medical  sciences,  and 
especially  that  of  hygiene,  has,  m  Mexico,  as  in  other 
countries,  brought  with  it  the  urgent  necessity  for  the 
creation  of  consulting  bodies  of  specialists  to  whom  has 
been  intrusted  the  cure  of  the  public  health.  This  ex- 
plains the  creation  by  the  Government  under  General  Santa 
Ana,  and  in  conformity  with  a  law  promulgated  in  the 
year  1842,  of  the  "  Consejo  Superior  de  Salubridad," 
or,  in  plain  English,  the  "Chief  Board  of  Health"  of 
Mexico. 

The  powers  conceded  to  this  body  covered,  in  certain 
directions,  fields  entirely  foreign  to  those  usually  occupied 
by  a  Board  of  Health :  as,  for  instance,  the  arbitration  in 
the  matter  of  doctor's  fees;  the  scrutiny  of  the  theses  sub- 
mitted by  parties  aspiring  to  the  title  of  doctor  here  in 
Mexico,  etc.,  so  that  the  accumulation  of  duties  foreign  to 
its  purpose,  and  the  want  of  elements  for  the  coiicen- 
trating  of  itself  on  the  question  of  the  public  health, 
brought  it  to  pass  that  this  last  branch  was  precisely  the 


468  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

least  looked   after,  or,  it  may    as    well   be  said  at    once, 
entirely  neglected. 

Already,  however,  in  1872,  the  Government  was  en- 
deavoring to  give  the  board  a  more  satisfactory  organiza- 
tion and  with  this  object  in  view  it  promulgated,  under 
date  of  January  25th,  a  regulatory  law  in  which  the  three 
following  fundamental  ideas  were  embodied: 

a.  The  imposing  upon  the  board  the  combined  functions 
of  the  care  of  the  public  health  and  the  carrying  out  of  the 
sauitary  police  regulations  connected  with  the  same,  with- 
out granting  oth'er  powers  than  those  indispensable  to  the 
proper  performance  of  said  functions. 

b.  The  granting  to  the  board  the  independence  necessary 
for  the  fultillraent  of  its  trust. 

c.  The  utilizing  of  its  intelligence  not  merely  in  matters 
connected  with  the  health  of  the  city,  and  with  the  police 
regulations  inseparable  from  the  same  (and  having  especial 
reference  to  the  Federal  District)  but  also  in  all  matters  in 
which  the  Federation  might  be  interested ;  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  matter  of  quarantine,  of  sanitary  cordons,  of 
lazarettos,  etc. 

There  were  included  from  the  beginning,  in  the  matters 
coming  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Board,  the  adminis- 
tering of  vaccine  matter,  and  the  examination  of  the 
public  women,  matters  \vhich  had  already  been  turned  over 
to  the  Government  of  the  District. 

In  order  that  this  scientific  l)ody  should  possess  the  nec- 
essary independence  for  the  fulfillment  of  its  trust,  its 
members  were  directly  nominated  by  the  Federal  Executive 
which  also  reserved  to  itself  the  right  of  removing  said 
members.  To  the  balance  of  the  authorities  was  conceded 
the  simple  right  of  consulting  the  Board  on  matters  affect- 
ing, nearly  or  remotely,  the  public  health. 

Upon  the  municipality,  as  most  directly  interested  in  the 
labors  of  the  board,  devolved  the  duty  of  administering  to 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  469 

its  peciiniaiy  necessities  ;  bat  this  turning  out  to  be  impos- 
sible of  fulfillment  by  reason  of  the  scanty  resources  at  the 
disposal  of  said  municipality,  the  General  Government 
came  to  its  aid,  decreeing  that  there  should  be  placed  at  its 
disposal  for  the  support  of  the  Board,  fifteen  per  cent  of  a 
lottery  granted  to  Mr.  Guatimoc  Hijar. 

The  funds  resulting  from  this  arrangement,  besides 
being  insuflacient,  were  also  exceedingly  uncertain,  the  lot- 
tery being  the  property  of  a  private  party;  the  result 
being  that  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  did,  in  1873,  call 
the  attention  of  both  Houses  of  Representatives  to  the  ab- 
solute necessity  of  guaranteeing  the  existence  of  the  Board 
and  of  furnishing  it  with  the  wherewithal  for  the  carrying 
out  of  its  mission,  which  could  only  be  done  by  assigning 
to  it  special  allowances  out  of  the  general  budget. 

The  Board  originally  occupied  a  ruinous  portion  of  the 
hospital  of  San  Andres  ;  it  had  neither  library  nor  the 
necessary  apparatus  or  instruments  in  its  laboratory;  but 
the  Government,  when  it  issued  the  decree  of  1872,  sup- 
plied these  wants,  assigning  to  the  board  a  roomy  depart- 
ment in  the  School  of  Mines,  placing  at  its  disposal  a 
library  filled  with  the  latest  works  on  hygiene,  and  furnish- 
ing its  laboratories  with  the  instruments  and  supplies  indis- 
pensable for  chemical  analysis  and  studies,  and  for  the 
practice  of  medicine  generally. 

In  the  same  building  was  also  established  the  General 
Vaccination  Office. 

On  the  20th  of  April  of  same  year  the  Minister  of  the 
Interior  gave  his  approval  to  the  rules  and  regulations  of 
the  Board,  drawn  up  by  its  members. 

In  spite  of  the  slender  subsidy  enjoyed  by  the  Board 
($8,000  yearly)  and  of  its  very  recent  organization,  it 
immediately  undertook  and  carried  out  most  important 
labors,  as  for  instance  that  of  the  medical  statistics ;  that 
of  the  rules  and  regulations  for  the  medical  men  connected 


470  THE   RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

with  the  civil  registry ;  that  of  the  inspection  of  food  and 
drink  ;  of  the  regulations  of  cemeteries  ;  of  inspection  of 
factories,  etc. 

The  well-known  philanthropist,  Don  Miguel  Munoz,  has 
the  honor  of  having  introduced  vaccination  into  Mexico. 
On  various  occasions  the  municipality  arranged  for  the 
vaccination  of  the  children  of  the  city;  on  various  others 
the  Government  of  the  District  took  the  task  upon  itself ; 
and  on  others  again,  it  was  intrusted  to  private  practi- 
tioners; the  result  being  that  for  w^ant  of  system  in  the 
application  of  the  remedy  it  was  impossible  either  to  insure 
its  proper  distribution,  or  to  obtain  the  statistics  necessary 
for  the  perfection  of  the  treatment  and  for  the  study  of  its 
effects  when  applied  on  a  large  scale.  Meanwhile,  the 
infant  population  was  decimated  by  small-pox ;  more  than 
300  children  died  monthly  from  this  scourge ;  and  the 
Government  finally  intrusted  Doctor  Munoz  with  the  organ- 
ization of  this  important  branch  of  the  service.  An 
Inspector  General  was  appointed  and  other  steps  were  taken 
of  so  energetic  a  nature  that  14,500  persons  were  vaccin- 
ated in  one  year,  the  majority  being  children.  The 
mortality  due  to  small-pox  very  soon  diminished,  so  much 
so  that  in  one  of  the  years  following  that  of  which  wo  are 
speaking  there  were  only  registered  thirteen  victims  of 
the  plague  in  question. 

In  colonial  times  public  opinion  was  not  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced to  consider  the  sanitary  inspection  of  public  women 
as  one  of  those  duties  called  for  by  the  laws  of  public 
health.  The  Republican  Government,  on  taking  posses- 
sion, initiated  certain  measures  calculated  to  combat  the 
ravages  made  in  said  public  health  by  venereal  diseases, 
commissioning  sundry  medical  men  to  make  domiciliary 
visits  to  the  prostitutes.  Experience  soon  showed  that 
this  measure  was  inadequate,  but  the  disturbed  condition 
of  jmblic  air.iirs  prevented   the  organization  of  a  sanitary 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  4:71 

inspection'  until  the  Government  became  consolidated. 
This  department  was  then  turned  over  to  the  district 
authorities,  as  regards  its  administrative  side  and  to  a  com- 
mittee of  doctors  as  regards  its  scientific  side  ;  the  Board 
of  Health  being  charged  with  the  duty  of  inspecting  the 
results  of  the  committee's  labors. 

•  The  sale  of  vaccine  matter ;  the  fines  imposed  on  recal- 
citrant and  evasive  prostitutes;  the  license  paid  by  the 
same  women,  and  a  subsidy  of  $1,000  annually,  granted 
by  the  Municipality,  supplied  the  chief  Board  of  Health  in 
1875  (the  period  when  the  lottery  which  assigned  15  per 
cent  to  the  Board  became  extinct),  with  $5,400  per  annum, 
the  General  Government  supplying,  by  charges  to  various 
accounts,  the  sum  necessary  to  complete  the  $14,733  which 
the  expenses  of  the  Board  called  for. 

The  Board,  ever  since  the  department  of  vaccination  was 
confided  to  it,  has  made  most  laudable  efforts  to  establish 
the  habit  of  vaccination  among  the  people,  even  going  to  the 
extent,  in  its  desire  to  avail  itself  of  all  possible  means,  of 
encouraging  the  furnishing  of  private  information  regard- 
ing the  birth  of  children  ;  a  doctor  being  sent  immediately 
on^eceipt  of  such  information  to  apply  the  vaccine  matter. 
Certain  doctors  were  commissioned  to  visit  periodically  the 
toAvns  in  the  district  for  the  purpose  of  vaccinating  the 
children,  with  the  result  that  the  epidemics  of  small-pox,  so 
devastating  in  former  years,  have  now  entirely  ceased. 

As  regards  the  work  of  sanitation,  it  was  not  at  once  put 
under  the  control  of  the  Board,  the  public  women  for 
instance  being  looked  after  by  the  doctors  attached  to  the 
various  police  stations. 

The  budget  laws  of  the  Eepublic  put  the  expenses  of  vac- 
cinnation  under  a  special  heading,  obliging  the  Government 
to  make  the  Chief  Board  of  Health  entirely  independent 
of  the  Charity  Commissioners.  One  of  the  principal 
motives  for  this  arrangement  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  Board 


472  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

has  the  inspection  of  the  establishments  intrusted  to  the 
commissioners,  which  inspection  would  naturally  amount 
to  nothing,  were  the  former  under  control  of  the  latter. 
The  board  is  now  under  the  control  of  the  Ministry  of  the 
Interior,  and  the  vaccination  inspectorship  has  been 
abolished,  its  duties  being  performed  by  the  doctors 
attached  to  the  police  stations,  or,  in  places  outside  of  the 
capital,  by  doctors  specially  commissioned  for  the  purpose. 

The  Board  is,  and  always  has  been,  hard-working.  In 
1879,  just  as  soon  as  the  means  at  its  disposal  and  its  re- 
cent orgatiization  permitted,  it  commenced  a  serious  special 
study  of  typhus.  In  its  capacity  of  a  consulting  board  it 
studied  also  and  at  the  same  time  the  medical  conditions  of 
the  capital;  the  adulteration  of  food  and  drink,  and 
the  epizootics  and  enzootics  which  attack  animals,  and 
especially  cattle.  It  decided  sundry  questions  in  legal 
medicine  submitted  to  it  by  the  criminal  courts,  notably 
sundr}'  cases  of  suicide  by  poisoning,  a  class  which  hap- 
pened to  be  just  then  pretty  numerous,  owing  to  the  loose 
way  in  which  poisons  were  being  sold. 

In  July,  1879,  special  regulations  were  issued  in  con- 
nection with  vaccination,  and  the  Sanitary  Inspectorship 
came  under  exclusive  control  of  the  Board.  This  Inspect- 
orship took  in  during  the  year  1879-1880,  $9,226,  its  ex- 
penses amounting  to  $8,373.  The  principal  items  of  receipt 
consisted  of  $3,320  produced  by  the  assignation  houses  ; 
$2,036  by  the  public  houses  of  prostitution,  and  $2,563  by 
licenses  granted  to  prostitutes. 

For  convenience  sake  it  was  also  arranged  that  the 
Board  should  be  independent  of  the  Charily  Commission, 
that  body  having  to  exercise  functions  of  a  general  nature, 
which  it  could  not  do  were  it  to  continue  dependent  on  an 
institution  entirely  local. 

The  Board  was  organized  in  a  manner  suited  to  the 
performance  of  the  various  functions  iutrusted  to    it.     It 


AND   ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  473 

named  special  committees  for  each  department,  enabling 
it  to  compile  tables  of  medical  statistics.  Among  other 
important  work  it  called  the  attention  of  the  Government 
and  the  public  to  the  great  mortality  amongst  children,' 
which  reaches  as  high  as  50  per  cent  (or  37  per  cent  of 
the  entire  mortality)  between  the  time  of  birth  and  the 
age  of  twelve  ,  and  it  drew  up  tabulated  statements  regard- 
ing the  prevailing  diseases,  which  enabled  it  to  demonstrate 
that  the  gastro-intestinal  class  accounted  for  the  greatest 
number  of  victims,  2,204  out  of  4,577  deaths  being  attribut- 
able to  the  class  in  question. 

As  the  Statistical  Department  is  of  recent  creation  and 
its  labors  will  have  to  be  brought  into  intimate  connection 
with  those  of  the  general  statistics  of  the  city  and  of  the 
Republic,  it  is  not  possible  as  yet  to  draw  from  it  any  very 
exact  results ;  but  there  is  no  question  as  to  the  importance 
of  even  the  approximate  conclusions  which  it  affords. 

In  the  matter  of  mortality  the  Board  draws  up  its  annual 
statistics  in  8  tabulated  statements,  as  follows: 

Mortality  in  General,  under  which  heading  comes  sex 
and  age,  the  last  named  being  divided  into  :  from  birth 
to  1  year,  from  1  to  3  years,  3  to  7,  7  to  12,  12  to  25,  25 
to  50,  50  to  70  and  from  70  to  90  and  over. 

Table  of  Mortality  by  Districts.  The  City  is  divided 
into  8  large  and  33  smaller  districts,  making  it  possible  to 
determine  the  complaints  which  predominate  in  each  one  of 
them . 

Table  of  Deaths  in  Charitable  Institutions,  which  are 
deducted  from  the  general  number  of  deaths  in  the  district 
where  they  happen  to  be  situated. 

Table  of  Deaths  Arranged  Accoixling  to  Callings,  being 
a  summary  of  the  principal  diseases. 

Thanks  to  these  labors  the  Board  has  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing, amongst  other  valuable  conclusions,  the  following: 
that  the  cause  of  the   great  mortality  amongst  infants  is 


474  THE    KICIIES    OF    MEXICO 

the  incompetence  of  persons  acting  as  niidwives  ;  a  generally 
prevailing  practice  of  artificial  bringing  up,  which  would 
lessen  were  there  a  registry  for  wet-nurses  under  the  im- 
•  mediate  supervision  of  the  chief  Board  of  Health  ;  the  bad 
quality  of  the  milk  consumed  in  the  capital,  much  of  it 
coming  from  cows  affected  with  tuberculosis,  and  being 
also  adulterated  by  the  vendors;  and  finall}' alcoholism  in 
the  parents,  a  most  common  vice  amongst  the  lower 
classes. 

The  average  duration  of  life  in  the  capital  has  also  been 
fixed,  it  having  been  24.5  in  1876,  and  having  varied  little 
since. 

The  Sanitary  Inspectorship  has  its  offices  in  the  Hospital 
Morelos.  It  is  in  charge  of  three  medical  men,  a  director 
and  two  assistants.  Three  registers  are  kept;  one  of  the 
examinations  made  daily;  another  of  the  women  who  go 
to  the  hospital  to  be  cured  ;  and  another  called  the  book  of 
histories,  wherein  are  inscribed  the  names,  antecedents, 
and  more  noteworthy  personal  circumstances  of  the  fallen 
women  who  register.  From  this  last  book  could  be  drawn 
interesting  data  for  compiling  the  history  of  prostitution  in 
Mexico,  and  studying  its  causes,  chief  amongst  which  are 
the  bad  treatment  of  orphans  and  the  deficient  education  of 
women. 

Amongst  the  matters  of  general  interest  dealt  with  by 
the  Board  the  following  deserve  special  mention  : 

Transportation  of  Dead  Bodies. — The  followins: 
regulations  have  received  the  approval  of  the  Board:  The 
transportation  of  the  bodies  of  persons  who  have  suc- 
cumbed to  some  infectious  disease  ;  like  typhus,  typhoid 
fevers,  small-pox,  yellow  fever,  cholera,  etc.,  etc.,  is 
strictly  prohibited.  When  death  is  due  to  other  causes  the 
transportation  of  the  body  is  permitted,  provided  cer- 
tain requisites  determined  by  the  Board  of  Health  are  com- 
plied with.      The  bodies   of  persons  dying   of  yellow  fever 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  475 

can  only  be  transported  by  the  trains  to  places 
which,  on  account  of  theh-  altitude,  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  infection.  The  bodies  must  be  placed  in  a 
casket  of  lead,  zinc  or  galvanized  iron,  the  sides  of 
which  must  be  three  millimeters  thick;  the  casket 
will  be  filled  with  sawdust  and  sulphate  of  zinc 
or  Avith  a  mixture  of  powdered  charcoal  and  tan. 
This  casket  will  be  hermetically  sealed  and  placed  within 
another  of  wood,  the  sides  of  which  must  be  at  least  three 
centimeters  thick,  and  must  be  fastened  with  screws  and 
nails.  The  coffin  will  be  placed  in  a  box-car  which  will  be 
attached  to  the  end  of  the  train,  and  will  not  stop  in  any 
station,  but  will  be  taken  directly  to  its  destination,  it  being 
strictly  prohibited  to  open"  the  coffin.  The  railroad  will 
have  cars  specially  intended  for  this  pm-pose  Avhich  will  be 
disinfected  each  time  they  are  used  and  which  will  be  kept 
in  a  separate  deposit.  Before  carrying  the  body  the  rail- 
road must  obtain  a  permit  from  the  authorities  and  a 
medical  certificate.  If  the  body  come  from  abroad  it  will 
only  be  received  after  the  consul  has  certified  that  all  these 
requisites  have  been  complied  with. 

Epidemics. — The  Board  has  also  drawn  up  a  set  of 
sanitary  measures  for  the  preventing  of  the  entry  of 
epidemics,  whether  by  the  coast  ports  or  whether  by  the 
frontier  cities  of  the  Republic ;  another  set  for  the  avoidance 
of  the  contamination  of  one  interior  town  by  another  ;  and 
yet  another  to  check  the  advances  of  epidemics  in  towns 
already  attacked. 

Just  as  soon  as  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  learns  that 
any  of  the  countries  which  are  in  communication  with 
Mexican  ports  have  been  attacked  by  some  epidemic,  it 
advises  the  authorities  in  order  that  they  may  see  to  the 
carrying  out  of  the  measures  of  quarantine  or  sanitary 
cordon  ordered  after  consultation  with  the  Chief  Board 
of   Health.      As,     in    1885,    this    class   of   measures  was 


470  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

had  recourse  to  in  order  to  stop  the  entry  of  cholera  which 
had  developed  in  some  parts  of  Spain,  Italy  and  France. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  year  in  question  the  disease  abated 
and  the  authorities  and  the  Board  then  gave  orders  that  only 
vessels  coming  from  infected  ports  should  be  subjected  to 
quarantine.  The  circular  of  July  26,  1885,  containing 
instructions,  was  based  upon  the  rejiort  presented  by  the 
Board  on  May  16th  of  the  same  3'ear. 

Shortly  afterwards  the  same  body  added  to  its  report 
the  classification  of  objects  susceptible  or  not  susceptible  in 
the  matter  of  carrying  contagion,  so  that  only  in  the  case 
of  the  former  should  there  be  required  a  strict  disinfection 
in  the  quarantine  stations.  The  board  urged  upon  the  Gov- 
ernment in  February  of  1886,  the  desirability  of  keeping 
disinfecting  stores  in  the  quarantine  stations,  and  defines 
the  requisites  which  these  should  possess. 

The  quarantine  stations  are  kept  up  by  the  General 
Government,  although  really  this  duty  appertains  to  the 
local  government.  It  assigns,  for  example,  $2,000  to  the 
Bagdad  station  and  $1,000  to  the  Acapulco  station  for  the 
completion  of  the  building  in  Roqueta  ;  it  opened  the  new 
station  in  Tchuantei)ec,  and  took  charge  of  the  one  on  the 
island  of  Sacrificios,  which  had  been  placed  at  its  disposal 
by  the  Municipality  of  Veracruz  through  the  intervention 
of  the  Ministry  of  War. 

The  very  recent  organization  of  the  board  and  its  labors 
made  it  advisable  that  the  Federal  Government  should  take 
charge  of  the  department  of  public  health  throughout  the 
Republic,  leaving  to  the  sanitary  committees  which  at  first 
had  charge  of  the  department  in  question,  the  putting  into 
effect  of  the  decrees  of  the  chief  Board  of  Health. 
Amongst  other  reasons  that  led  to  this  arrangement  may  be 
enumerated  the  uniformity  of  action  called  for,  whether  in 
the  direction  of  preventive  measures,  or  of  those  intended 
to  reduce    tho  dcvelopnieut    of  epidemics  to  a  minimum, 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  477 

the  facilities  at  the  disposal  of  the  Government  for  obtain- 
ing technical  advice  from  scientific  notabilities  and  for 
acting  npon  and  enforcing  the  recommendations  made  to  it. 
According  to  the  aforementioned  law  of  16th  July,  1885, 
the  preventive  measures  indicated  by  the  chief  Board  of 
Health  were  as  follows  : 

QUARANTINE. 

Every  vessel  arriving  at  a  Mexican  port  must  be  visited 
by  the  local  Board  of  Health,  and  cannot  commence  its 
operations  until  authorized  by  said  Board.  Where  there 
is  no  Board  the  inspection  will  be  made  by  two  or  three 
medical  men. 

The  members  of  the  Board,  or  the  medical  men,  will 
examine  the  bill  of  health  brought  by  the  vessel,  and  will 
inform  themselves  as  to  the  ports  touched  at  by  the  vessel 
and  the  sanitary  condition  on  board ;  also  as  to  whether 
there  have  been  or  are  any  cases  of  sickness  of  more  or 
less  seriousness.    . 

When  the  vessel  has  touched  at  some  infected  port,  or 
has  come  from  one  without  any  case  of  the  epidemic  having 
made  its  appearance  on  board,  it  will  be  placed  for  seven 
days  under  observation,  always  provided  that  the  passage 
has  lasted  more  then  eight  days ;  if  it  has  not  lasted  that 
long  the  vessel  will  be  under  observation  for  the  number  of 
days  necessary  to  complete  fifteen  from  the  time  of  its 
leaving  the  infected  pert. 

Where  cases  of  sickness  have  occurred  on  board,  the 
passengers  are  subjected  to  ten  days  observation,  and  if 
there  are  actually  sick  people  on  board  they  can  only  be 
disembarked  in  ports  where  the  quarantine  station  is  well 
furnished  with  necessaries.  The  sick,  upon  convalescence, 
will  be  subjected  to  ten  days  observation.  The  clothes 
and    movables   on    board  the  vessel   shall    be    also    disin- 


478  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

fected  (and  if  it  has  brought  sick  people  the  vessel  itself 
shall  be  disinfected)  at  the  quarantine  station,  and  in 
stoves  heated  to  110  degrees  Centigrade,  or  by  means  of 
sulphuric  acid. 


INSPECTION     ON     THE    NORTHERN    FRONTIER    AND    IN    COMMU- 
NICATION   WITH    GUATEMALA. 

In  the  case  of  an  epidemic  in  the  United  States,  the 
transit  of  ])assengers  and  goods  will  only  be  permitted  l)y 
way  of  Matamoros,  New  Laredo,  Piedras  Negras,  Paso  del 
Norte  and  Nogales.  At  these  points  passengers  will  be 
examined  and  their  clothes  and  baggage  disinfected. 

The  sanitary  stations  will  be  isolated  from  all  habitations 
and  will  consist  of  a  lazaretto  for  the  sick,  isolated  in  its 
turn  from  the  other  departments  of  the  station  ;  also  of  the 
stove  and  of  the  disinfecting  rooms.  "With  a  certificate 
issued  by  these  sanitary  stations,  passengers,  and  the  sick 
who  have  already  been  cured,  can  pass  through  to  the 
frontier  towns. 

Individuals  who  present  only  some  of  the  symptoms  of 
the  epidemic  can  either  return  north  to  the  States  or  be 
treated  in  the  sanitary  stations.  The  dead  will  be  cremated 
and  their  clothes  reduced  to  ashes. 

There  will  be  in  every  sanitary  station  three  doctors,  two 
of  whom  will  attend  to  the  inspection  of  the  passengers  and 
the  putting  to  them  of  such  questions  as  may  be  considered 
necessary,  while  the  other  will,  in  the  lazaretto,  look  after 
such  as  turn  out  to  be  sick.  Where  trains  have  come  from 
infected  points,  or  have  touched  at  them,  they  will  not  be 
allowed  to  proceed  to  the  towns,  but  passengers  and  freight 
will  be  transferred  at  the  sanitary  station,  after  having 
been  properly  disinfected,  and  the  vehicles  will  be  returned 
to  the  United  States. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  479 

The  disinfection  will  be  carried  out  in  the  sanitary  sta- 
tions by  the  same  methods  as  are  practiced  in  the  ports. 

As  regards  Guatemala,  all  communication  will  be  stopped 
with  that  Republic  the  moment  any  epidemic  breaks  out 
there. 


MEANS  FOR  PREVENTING  THE  INFECTING  OF  ONE  TOWN  IN 
THE  REPUBLIC  BY  ANOTHER. 

The  first  towns  invaded  by  an  epidemic  will  be  isolated 
from  the  rest  of  the  Republic,  provided  they  are  self-sus- 
taining, and  that  their  topographical  situation  and  com- 
mercial relations  admit  of  it.  The  isolation  will  be  affected 
by  means  of  a  sanitary  cordon  at  one  league  distant  from 
the  town,  the  crossing  of  which  cordon  by  freight  or  pas- 
sengers shall  be  rigorously  prevented. 

MEASURES     FOR    CHECKING     THE    RAVAGES    OF     THE    DISEASE. 

The  following  have  been  prescribed  by  the  chief  Board 
of  Health  for  enforcement  in  infected  towns. 

The  sewers  shall  be  cleansed,  refuse  burnt,  and  streets, 
fountains  and  waterways  kept  in  the  highest  state  of  clean- 
liness ;  the  inhabitants  shall  be  urged  to  emigrate,  the  Gov- 
ernment will  see  that  there  is  a  sufficient  stock  of  medicines, 
and  there  shall  be  established  a  preventive  medical  service 
and  relief  committees.  The  doctors  attached  to  the  service 
shall  visit  the  suburbs  to  look  after  the  cleanliness  of  same, 
and  visit  also  the  houses  of  the  poorer  classes  to  see  that 
they  carry  out  the  hygienic  measures  formulated  by  the 
Board.  The  Relief  Committees  will  collect  the  sums  de- 
voted to  the  poor,  will  make  arrangements  with  the  drug 
stores  for  the  furnishlnoj  of  medicines  to  the  necessitous 
sick,  will  buy  clothes,  medicines  and  food  for  proper  dis- 


480  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

tribution  amongst  the  poor  and  will  establish  provisional 
hospitals.  There  shall  be  established  also  a  nocturnal 
medical  service  at  the  police  stations  or  at  such  other 
points  as  shall  be  considered  convenient.  This  service  shall 
be  entirely  free  of  charge  to  those  who  may  avail  them- 
selves of  it. 

All  large  gatherings  shall  be  carefully  avoided ;  the 
troops  in  barracks  shall  be  distributed  about  as  much  as 
possible;  crowding  in  jails  shall  be  avoided,  and  the  hours 
of  attendance  at  the  public  schools  shall  be  lessened.  The 
markets  shall  be  scrupulously  inspected ;  the  sale  of  second- 
hand beds,  bed-clothes  and  cast-off  clothes  shall  be  pre- 
vented ;  work  shall  be  stopped  in  all  factories  where  organic 
materials  easy  of  decomposition  are  used,  and  the  sites  for 
burying-grounds  for  the  victims  of  the  epidemic  shall  be 
chosen  at  a  long  distance  from  towns.  In  the  already 
existing  burying-grounds  a  portion  or  place  shall  be  set 
aside  for  said  victims,  and  their  graves  shall  have  a  depth 
of  not  less  than  two  meters. 

There  shall  be  a  medical  man  in  every  cemetery  to  certify 
to  the  deaths.  No  religious  ceremony  shall  be  celebrated 
in  the  presence  of  the  corpses,  nor  shall  any  corpse  remain 
in  a  dwelling-house  over  twenty-four  hours. 

Notice  shall  be  given  to  the  authorities  by  every  doctor, 
manager,  director,  proprietor,  factory  owner,  etc.,  of  any 
case  of  cholera  which  shail  present  itself  in  the  establish- 
ment under  their  charge.  The  authorities  will  see  to  it  that 
there  be  furnished  to  families  such  assistance,  hygienic 
instructions,  medical  treatment  and  medicines  as  they  may 
stand  in  need  of. 

Under  no  circumstances  will  the  sick  be  permitted  to 
feed  in  hotels,  inns,  colleges  or  any  other  edifice  where 
crowding  is  inevitable. 

The  law  containing  these  provisions  bears  date  July  lOth, 
1885,  and  it  also  contains  others  relating  to  private  persons. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  481 

to  the  mode  of  disinfecting  houses,  to  the  care  of  the  sick, 
preventive  measures,  etc. 

Disinfection.  Reference  has  been  made  to  the  classifi- 
cation made  by  the  Board  of  materials,  and  merchandise 
which  should  be  disinfected  in  the  lazarettos  and  sanitary 
stations.  This  classification  is  the  same  as  that  prescribed 
by  Art.  53  of  the  Regulations  of  the  Maritime  Sanitarv 
Police  in  France. 

According  to  this  last  classification,  merchandise  and 
other  articles  come  under  three  headings:  — 

Susceptible  articles^  requiring  disinfection,  comprise  bag- 
gage and  articles  of  personal  use,  rags,  waste,  hides,  skins, 
feathers,  bristles,  animal  remains,  wools  and  raw  silk. 

Less  co7npromising  articles,  in  whose  case  disinfection 
is  optional,  comprise  cotton,  linen  and  unmanufactured 
hemp. 

Unsusce/ptahle  articles,  whose  disinfection  would  be  su- 
perfluous, comprise  newly  manufactured  goods,  grain  and 
other  alimentary  substances,  lumber,  resins,  ore  and 
all  merchandise  and  articles  not  included  in  the  first  class. 


THE    SANITARY    CODE. 

In  1886  the  Chief  Board  of  Health  undertook  the  for- 
mation of  a  Sanitary  Code,  which  should  comprise  all  the 
measures  tending  to  hygienic  uniformity,  thoroughness,* 
and  good  service,  not  only  in  the  capital  but  in  the  entire 
Republic,  and  which  should  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  San- 
itary Boards  and  authorities  in  all  matters  in  any  way  con- 
nected with  the  public  health.  Three  years  later,  in  1889, 
the  results  of  the  Board's  labors  were  presented  to  the 
Ministry  of  the  Interior,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  adopted  the  Code  with  hardly  any  mod- 
ification, giving  it  the  force  of  a  law.     This  body  of  legis- 

31 


482  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

lation  contain?;  many  excellent  items  whjcli  will  undoubtedly 
have  a  most  beneficial  effect  upon  the  general  health  of  the 
Republic. 

HEALTH    CONGRESS, 

The  American  Health  Association  which  holds  annual 
meetings  in  Charleston  invited  the  Board  of  Health  of 
jNIexico  to  assist  at  the  last  of  its  reunions,  an  invitation 
which  was  accepted  by  the  sending  of  two  specialists, 
members  of  the  last  named  body. 

One  of  the  most  distinguished  members  of  the  Board  was 
commissioned  by  the  Government  to  proceed  to  Berlin  and 
there  study  the  system  of  Dr.  Koch  for  the  treatment  of 
tuberculosis,  communicating  the  results  here  afterwards. 

In  December  of  1892  there  met  in  Mexico  a  body  of 
foreign  medical  men,  Americans  and  Canadians,  who  were 
accorded  an  excellent  reception  in  the  capital  of  the  Re- 
public and  brilliant  ovations  in  most  of  the  capitals  of  the 
States  passed  through  by  them  on  the  way.  The  medical 
fraternity  of  Mexico  were  invited  by  their  confreres  to 
assist  at  their  next  meeting,  which  has  already  begun  in  the 
city  of  Chicago. 

SANITARY   POLICE. 

ni.  In  Mexico  the  Federal  Executive  has  been  charged 
with  the  duty  of  fornmlating,  in  conformity  with  the  public 
convenience,  the  measures  bearing  on  the  pul)lic  health,  and 
the  States  Government  in  conjunction  with  the  Boards 
of  Health  enforce  said  measures,  and  formulate  and  enforce 
such  others  as  the  circumstances  of  each  locality  call  for. 

In  the  Federal  District  the  Chief  Board  of  Health  is  in 
charge  of  public  hygiene,  extending  its  influence  over  the 
rest  of  the  Republic  by  means  of  branch  establishments  and 
through  the  State  Boards. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  483 

On  December  18lh,  1889,  the  Board  authorized  the  Ex- 
ecutive to  issue  the  Sanitary  Code  already  mentioned,  and 
which  had  been  drawn  up  by  the  Board  and  by  the  special 
committees  appointed  for  that  purpose,  said  Code  being  in 
force  in  the  Federal  District  and  Territories  in  the  points 
affecting  each,  and  in  the  entire  Republic  in  the  points 
affecting  sanitary  matters  connected  with  the  maritime  and 
frontier  ports  of  entry,  with  the  foreign  relations  of  the 
Federation  and  those  with  its  States,  with  the  relations  of 
said  States  to  each  other,  and  in  short  all  sanitary  matters 
of  general  interest.  In  the  exercise  of  this  authorization 
the  Executive  issued  on  July  15th,  1891,  the  Sanitary  Code 
which  began  to  be  in  force  on  1st  August  of  same  year. 

According  to  this  law,  the  Sanitary  Service  of  the 
Republic  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Federal  Executive,  the 
Governors  of  States,  and  the  administrative  authorities  and 
employes  as  defined  by  law  generally.  The  Sanitary  Ad- 
ministration, as  regards  its  agents,  is  divided  into  Federal 
and  Local.  Under  the  first  heading  come  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior  as  supreme  chief  of  the  Department ;  the  Chief 
Board  of  Health ;  the  Health  Boards  of  the  ports  and 
frontier  towns ;  the  Federal  authorities  and  functionaries 
resident  in  the  State  and  specially  commissioned  by  the 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  and  all  sanitary  agents  specially 
appointed  for  any  part  of  the  Republic. 

Under  the  second  come,  in  the  States,  those  functionaries 
and  authorities  who  make  the  private  laws  of  same,  with 
that  libert}^  of  legislating  granted  them  by  the  Constitution. 

The  Sanitary  Aministration  in  the  city  of  Mexico  con- 
sists of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  the  Government  of 
the  District,  the  Municipality,  the  Chief  Board,  the  In- 
spectors of  Markets,  of  street  cleaning,  etc.,  the  Medical 
departments  of  the  police  stations  and  the  Inspector  of 
the  same,  the  Sanitary  Inspectors  of  the  District,  the  con- 
sulting surgeon   of  the   Civil    Courts,    the   Directors    and 


484  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

Surgeons  of  the  Public  Hospitals,  and  the  Inspectors  of 
the  public  women;  in  the  Prefectures  of  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict, tbe  Inspectors  who  are  under  the  orders  of  the 
Prefect  and  Municipality  ;  and  in  the  territories  of  Lower 
California  and  Tepic  the  Sanitary  Inspectors  under  the 
orders  respectively  of  the  Jefes  Politicos  of  La  Paz,  Todos 
Santos  and  Tepic,  and  these  Inspectors  and  agents  who 
may  be  appointed  by  the  Municipalities,  the  Prefectures, 
and  the  SubrPrefectures. 

THE  CHIEF  BOARD  OF  HEALTH. 

The  chief  Board  of  Health  is  composed  of  six  sanitary 
physicians,  of  whom  five  are  civil  and  one  military;  of  a 
lawyer,  a  veterinary  surgeon,  a  chemist,  and  an  engineer* 
all  of  whom  have  votes  ;  and,  besides,  of  the  employes  for 
the  technical  and  special  work  intrusted  to  the  Board. 

In  the  ports  the  Boards  of  Health  are  composed  of  a 
medical  man  who  will  officiate  as  president,  of  the  captain 
of  the  port,  and  of  such  persons  as  the  municipality  of  the 
place  shall  appoint,  and  the  Governor  of  the  State  or  Jefe 
Politico  of  the  Territory  shall  accept. 

In  the  frontier  towns  the  Boards  of  Health  are  composed 
like  those  of  the  ports,  with  the  exception  of  that  part  which 
refers  to  the  captain  of  the  port. 

The  President  of  the  Republic,  through  the  intervention 
of  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  has  the  right  to  appoint 
and  dismiss  freely  the  sanitary  oflicials  and  agents,  whether 
Federal  or  local,  and  whether  belonging  to  the  Feiloral 
District  or  to  the  Territories  of  Tepic  and  Lower  Cali- 
fornia. 

SANITARY    SERVICE    IN     THE     PORTS. 

In  connection  with  the  sanitary  service  in  the  ports,  it  is 
provided   that  foreign  vessels  destined   for  ports  of  the 


AND   ITS   INSTlttJttONi&.-  4S5 

Eepublic  shall  furnish  themselves  with  a  certificate  of 
health  which  shall  be  issued  by  the  Mexican  consuls,  and 
for  which  two  dollars  shall  bo  charged,  and  Mexican  ves- 
sels leavino-  any  port  of  the  Republic  bound  for  foreign 
parts  shall  carry  the  proper  certificate  and  also  a  doctor, 
who  shall  be  immediately  responsible  for  the  vessel.  The 
certificates  issued  shall  be  as  follows:  Clean,  when  no  sick- 
ness of  importance  is  about ;  or  suspicious  and  foul  accord- 
mg  to  circumstances.  Certificates  issued  abroad  under  any 
other  heading,  will  be  considered  as  coming  mulcrfoul. 

Maritime  quarantine  is  in  order  in  case  of  Asiatic  cholera, 
of  yellow  fever,  or  of  any  other  sickness  which  may  be 
qualified  as  alarming,  and  the  quarantine  is  divided  into 
strict  and  observation  only.  The  existence  of  sick  people 
on  board  during  the  voyage  or  at  the  time  of  arrival,  calls 
for  the  former,  and  passengers,  crew,  baggage  and 
merchandise  must  be  purified  in  the  lazaretto  to  which  they 
may  be  transferred  for  purposes  of  disinfection.  The  lat- 
ter is  called  for  by  the  mere  fact  of  procedure  from  an  in- 
fected or  suspicious  locality,  or  the  having  touched  at  some 
port  in  the  same  conditions,  and  consists  in  prohibiting  free 
communication  during  the  time  that  the  incubation  of  the 
disease  lasts,  and  in  the  disinfection  of  such  clothing  and 
other  objects  as  may  be  considered  needful. 

LAND    QUARANTINE. 

Land  quarantine  and  sanitary  cordons  shall  be  established 
in  case  of  Asiatic  cholera  or  other  epidemics  which  come 
under  the  head  of  alarming,  and  are  dealt  with  in  specially 
provided  places  where  the  proper  disinfection  is  carried  out. 
To  avoid  the  introduction  across  the  frontier  of  foreign 
cattle  or  the  remains  of  the  same,  which  may  be  the  means 
of  transmitting  epizootics  to  animals  or  sickness  to  human 
beings,  it  is  provided  that  they  shall  come  furnished  with  a 


486  THJE   BICHES    OF    MEXICO 

certificate  vised  by  the  Mexican  consul  resident  in  the  State 
whence  the  shipment  is  made,  and  there  is,  furthermore, 
phices  provided  for  a  department  of  veterinary  surgery  in 
those  on  the  frontier  and  in  those  ports  where  the  importa- 
tion is  largest. 


MEDICAL    STATISTICS. 

The  compiling  of  those  medical  statistics  which  include 
data  regarding  births,  marriages,  deaths,  the  movements  of 
sick  in  the  hospitals  and  of  the  infccto-contagious  diseases, 
is  intrusted  to  the  general  board  of  statistics  and  to  the 
Federal  Sanitary  Officers,  wiio  collect  data  from  all  the 
hospitals  in  the  Eepublic  and  from  all  medical  men  whose 
duty  it  is  to  issue  medical  certificates  of  the  deaths  which 
occur  in  their  practice,  with  the  right  to  collect  the  corre- 
sponding fees. 

The  compilation  in  the  capital  includes  sanitary  dispo- 
sitions in  connection  with  schools  and  dwelling  houses; 
with  food  and  drink  ;  with  churches,  theaters  and  other 
places  of  reunion  ;  with  the  interior  hygiene  of  factories, 
workshops,  warehouses  and  other  establishments  which 
may  be  dangerous  or  inconvenient  ;  with  the  sales  of  medi- 
cines and  other  substances  of  industrial  use  in  apothecary 
shops,  drugstores  and  other  similar  establishments  ;  with 
the  practice  of  medicine  in  its  different  branches;  with 
inhumation,  exhumation  and  transportation  of  dead  bodies; 
with  all  infectious  and  contagious  diseases;  witli  epizootics 
and  the  sanitary  policing  of  animals;  with  dairies, 
slaughter-houses,  and  meat  from  outside  the  capital;  with 
markets,  refuse-heaps,  and  puMic  works  which  affect 
hygiene.  The  Sanitary  .Administration  in  other  parts  of 
the  Federal  District  and  in  the  Territories  establishes 
identical  dispositions  which  arc  carried  into  effect  as  far  as 
the  elements  at  hand  will  permit. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  487 


DRAINAGE    OF    THE    VALLEY    OF    MEXICO. 

IV.  In  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  and  by  consequence  in  the 
capital  of  the  Republic,  the  public  health  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  drainage  of  this  locality,  which  has  been 
going  on  ever  since  colonial  times. 

The  Federal  District  is  situated  in  the  southern  portion  of 
the  lands  known  as  the  "  Valley  of  Mexico,"  and  is  limited 
to  the  southwest  and  west  by  sundry  mountains  ;  contains 
within  its  area  a  part  of  the  great  lake  of  Texcoco,  into 
which  flows  on  its  western  side  and  by  means  of  canals,  the 
foul  water  from  Mexico,  Tacubaya,  Mixcoac,  San  Angel, 
Tacuba,  Atzcapotzalco  and  other  towns.  The  bottom  of 
this  lake  forms  the  lowest  level  of  the  valley,  so  that  there 
accumulate  in  it  all  the  refuse  waters  which,  spreading  over 
its  wide  surface,  produce  noxious  emanations  affecting  the 
health  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Federal  District.  There 
have  been  times  when  the  atmosphere  has  been  so  charged 
with  miasma  as  to  cause  a  sickening  odor  perceptible  all 
over  the  capital ;  but  even  when  this  is  not  the  case  the 
influence  of  the  lake  is  none  the  less  pernicious  ;  witness 
the  prevailing  diseases  in  the  exceptionally  healthy  climate 
of  the  capital.  In  addition  to  the  evils  described  this  lake 
is  a  continual  menace  to  Mexico,  because  the  level  of  the 
city  being  only  forty  centimeters  above  that  of  the  lake, 
the  currents  in  the  time  of  heavy  rains  take  the  direction  of 
the  former  and  cause  inundations  accompanied  by  serious 
loss  and  an  increase  of  sickness. 

The  projected  drainage  works  tend  to  afl'ord  an  outlet 
for  the  excess  waters  of  the  lake  outside  the  valley,  in 
which  there  also  exist  the  lake  of  Xochimilco,  with  an  area 
of  thirty-six  kilometers  and  480  meters  square,  and  that  of 
Chaico,  with  twenty-five  square  kilometers.  These  two 
lakes  are   separated  by  a  causeway  which  unites  the  towns 


488  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

of  Tlaltonango  and  Tulyehuulco  ;  their  waters  are  sweet,  in 
contradistinction  to  those  of  Lake  Texcoco,  which  are  salt. 

From  the  times  of  Moctezuma  I,  or  Ylhuicamina,  up  to 
1603,  there  were  six  great  inundations  in  the  capital  which 
disastrously  affected  life  and  property.  In  1607  the  Viceroy 
Moutes  Claros  made  extensive  repairs  in  the  causeways, 
dikes,  sluices,  etc.,  to  avoid  inundations,  but  no  general 
work  was  projected  until  the  Viceroyship  of  Don  Luis  de 
Velazco,  who  called  together  the  most  skilled  men  he  could 
find  for  consultation  as  to  the  best  plan  for  completely 
doing  away  with  the  inundation.  It  was  decided  on  that 
occasion  to  drain  the  lake  of  San  Cristobal  by  means  of 
the  canal  of  Huehuetoca,  as  is  recorded  in  a  Governmental 
Act  of  23d  of  October,'_1607.  The  work  was  directed  by 
that  able  mathematician,  Juan  Sanchez,  a  Jesuit  priest,  and 
was  carried  out  by  the  famous  hydrographer,  Enrico  Mar- 
tinez. The  Viceroy  Velazco  continued  on  his  own  account 
this  important  work  of  drainage  on  the  28th  of  November, 
1607. 

From  that  time  to  the  present  every  Government  has 
dedicated  considerable  sums  of  money  to  both  the  con- 
servation of  the  work  already  begun  and  to  the  momentary 
defense  of  the  city  against  the  overflows  of  Texcoco. 
These  last  labors  do  not  completely  meet  the  evil,  although 
the  municipality  of  the  capital  has  had  to  expend  on 
them  some  thousands  of  dollars  yearly. 

The  real  beginning  of  this  work   may  be  said  to  date 

DO 

from  1885,  in  which  year  a  plan  was  formulated  by  the 
local  assembly  in  conjunction  with  the  Government  for  con- 
tinuing the  general  work  of  drainage,  to  cost,  according  to 
the  calculations  of  Engineer  Luis  Espinosa,  $4,000,000.00. 
For  the  carrying  out  of  the  work  there  was  created  a 
board  composed  of  property  owners,  charged  with  the 
organization  and  direction  of  the  same,  and  with  the 
administration  of  tiic  funds  devoted  to  the  purpose.     This 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  489 

board  was  given  complete  power,  it  being  merely  required 
to  adjust  the  work  to  the  plans  approved  by  the  Secretary- 
ship of  Fomentation.  The  Municipal  Treasury  was  unable, 
uniissisted,  to  provide  the  sum  necessary  for  the  work,  and 
the  General  Government  consequently  came  to  its  assistance 
with  $200,000  yearly.  To  furnish  this  sum  to  the  Munic- 
ipality, the  tolls  ceded  to  it  by  the  General  Government 
for  the  local  needs  of  the  city  were,  by  an  act  of  the  11th 
December,  1885,  increased  from  twenty-eight  to  forty  per 
cent.  The  Municipality  for  its  part  also  sets  aside  the  sum 
of  $200,000  for  the  drainage  works. 

On  the  second  January,  1886,  there  were  issued  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  the  Board  of  Management  of  the 
works.  This  last  consists  of  five  property  owners  with 
votes,  and  five  substitutes  appointed  directly  by  the  Execu- 
tive, which  reserves  to  itself  the  right  of  removal.  The 
rules  and  regulations  defined  the  powers  and  attributes  of 
the  Board,  and  the  mode  of  administering  and  distributing 
the  funds.  They  provide  that  the  responsibility  of  adminis- 
tration shall  fall  personally  upon  the  city  collector,  and  on 
the  accountant  and  cashier  of  the  same  office,  jointly  and 
severally.  On  the  first  of  January,  1886,  the  said  office 
commenced  to  receive  the  sums  which  by  the  aforemen- 
tioned law  of  December  11th,  belonged  to  it ;  but  it  did  not 
immediately  hand  them  to  the  Managing  Board  already 
appointed,  because  there  had  been  presented  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Colonization,  Industry  and  Commerce,  a  new  plan 
of  drainage,  and  the  Government  appointed  a  committee  of 
engineers  to  decide  as  to  its  merits;  the  Board  had,  conse- 
quently, to  await  the  decision  of  the  above  Department,  and 
up  to  June  of  1886  it  limited  itself  to  preserving  the  works 
of  Tequisquiac,  and  laid  out  a  canal  along  the  eastern 
limits  of  the  city,  known  as  San  Lazaro,  to  the  Lake  of 
San  Cristobal,  this  piece  of  work  being  common  to  both 
the  original  drainage  plan  and  the  one  which  was  being 


490  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

examined.  This  last  having  been  rejected,  the  Department 
of  Colonization,  Industry  and  Commerce  determined  that 
the  works  should  continue  in  conformity  with  the  plan 
approved  on  September  30,  1879,  but  with  some  modifica- 
tions. The  plan  in  question  divides  the  work  of  drainage 
into  three  parts,  namely,  the  cut  of  Tequisquiac,  the 
tunnel  of  Zumpango,  and  the  grand  canal  through  which 
the  waters  will  run  when  they  have  once  left  the  valley  of 
Mexico. 

The  Board  of  Directors  having  in  charsje  the  drainage  of 
the  valley,  has  just  published  a  report  of  the  work  which 
has  been  accomplished  in  the  direction  up  to  October  1st, 
1892. 

Accompanying  same  are  four  explanatory  plans ;  the 
first  is  a  hydrographic  chart  of  the  valley  of  Mexico,  con- 
taining a  sketch  of  the  grand  canal  and  tunnel  for  the 
drainage  of  same,  in  comformity  with  the  projected  plan 
for  the  execution  of  this  work ;  the  second  shows  the 
longitudinal  profile  of  the  Tequixquiac  tunnel ;  the  third,  the 
longitudinal  profile  of  the  grand  canal;  and  the  fourth,  a 
section  of  the  tunnel. 

This  report  contains  a  hasty  summary  of  the  various 
projects  formulated  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  great 
work  up  to  the  present  time,  which  is  now  in  charge  of  a 
Board  of  Directors  appointed  by  the  President  of  the 
Eepublic. 

The  present  plan  of  drainage  is  designed  to  meet  two 
distinct  ol)jects :  1st,  to  receive  the  dirty  waters  and  the 
sewage  of  the  city  of  Mexico  and  conduct  same  beyond  the 
valley;  2d,  to  govern  the  waters  in  the  entire  valley,  and 
conduct  outside  the  limits  of  same,  when  necessity  requires, 
those  which  mi<;ht  cause  damage  thereiti. 

This  plan,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  hydrographic  chart  at- 
tached to  the  rt'poit,  is  divided  into  three  parts  :  a  canal 
which   starts  from  the  San  Lazaro  gate,  and  whose  total 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  491 

longitude  is  47  kilometers,  580  meters,  terminating  near 
the  town  of  Zumpango,  where  the  tunnel  begins,  extend- 
ing northward  in  a  continuous  line,  for  some  10,021  meters, 
79  centimeters,  terminating  in  a  discharge  outlet  which  ex- 
tends for  3  kilometers  and  possesses  a  mean  depth  of  16 
meters. 

Shortly  after  taking  charge  of  these  works,  the  Board  of 
Directors  of  the  drainage  of  the  valley,  gave  the  contract 
for  the  completion  of  same  to  Messrs.  Read  &  Campbell, 
who  were  finally  obliged  to  rescind  their  contract  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  year,  after  having  invested  con- 
siderable sums  of  money  in  the  work. 

This  firm  has  continued  to  lend  their  aid  to  the  work  up 
to  the  present  moment,  but  only  in  the  capacity  of  managers 
and  under  the  direction  of  the  Board. 

The  actual  condition  of  the  enterprise  at  the  end  of  last 
September,  was  as  follows: 

Grand  Canal. 
Total  excavation 6,666,000  c.  m 

TunJiel. 

The  galleries,  excepting  Nos.  8  and  11,  are  already  com- 
pleted. 

The  faces  of  the  advance  galleries  reach  an  extension  of 6,200  m. 

The  portion  already  furnished 5,320  m. 

DRAINAGE    AND    SEWERS. 

With  the  general  works  for  the  drainage  of  the  valley,  are 
intimately  linked  those  of  the  draining  and  cleansing  of 
the  city  of  Mexico,  within  its  own  limits.  Up  to  date  its 
system  of  sewers  has  been  very  imperfect,  renderinor 
difficult  the  passage  of  the  sewage  to  the  canal  which  con- 
ducts same  to  Texcoco.    Important  works  have  already  been 


492  THE    RICHES    OF   MEXICO 

commenced,  however,  to  obviate  this  drawback.  On  the 
2d  of  May,  1888,  the  Municipality  authorized  its  finance 
and  public  works  committees  to  arrange  for  the  establish- 
ment of  pumps,  with  their  motors,  which  should  perma- 
nently work  at  the  drainage  of  the  city.  The  city  engineer 
formulated  a  plan  wMiich  was  accepted  by  the  committees, 
and  there  were  at  once  ordered  from  London  four  centri- 
fugal pumps  with  a  horizontal  discharge,  four  engines, 
two  boilers,  and  such  other  machinery  as  was  deemed 
necessary. 

On  the  site  fixed  upon  for  the  setting  up  of  the  engines 
a  deep  excavation  was  made  for  the  laying  of  foundations 
with  that  solidity  which  the  weight  of  the  pumps  called 
for,  and  the  necessary  masonry  work  was  executed.  The 
spot  chosen  for  their  establishment  was  close  to  the  canal 
of  San  Lazaro,  east  of  the  city,  and  there  a  dike  was  con- 
structed so  that  the  pumps  might  discharge  their  waters 
into  those  of  the  canal  itself,  thereby  giving  a  more  rai)id 
flow  to  these  last.  Each  pump  takes  the  water  for  its 
discharge  from  a  sewer  into  which  the  drains  of  the  city 
empty. 

The  principal  object  of  the  setting  up  of  these  pumps 
was  the  immediate  establishment  of  a  system  of  drainage 
for  the  city  which  should  harmonize  with  the  general  drain- 
age of  the  valley.  One  of  the  results  has  beeu  an  imme- 
diate improvement  in  the  hygienic  conditions  of  said  city, 
and  a  lessening  of  partial  iimndations,  formcrh^  so  fre- 
quent, and  due  to  the  bad  system  of  sewers,  and  to  their 
complete  absence  in  certain  streets.  The  establishment 
of  these  pumps  cost  $110,564.24.  It  has  permitted  the 
construction  of  those  large  collecting  sewers  which  are  to 
cross  the  city  from  cast  to  west  and  form  connection  with 
the  Tequisquiac  tunnel  as  also  with  the  Grand  Canal,  which 
will  serve  for  the  direct  removal  of  the  water. 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS,  493^ 


CEMETERIES. 

The  law  of  30th  January,  1857,  provided  that  all  the 
cemeteries  of  the  Republic  should  come  under  the  care  and 
management  of  the  civil  authorities,  no  interference  with 
them  being  permitted  to  the  priest  of  any  religion. 

The  old  practice  of  the  Catholic  clergy  of  burying  the 
dead  in  the  atri6,  and  even  in  the  interior  of  the  churches, 
was  abolished. 

In  virtue  of  these  resolutions  an  active  watch  is  kept 
over  the  cemeteries,  as  the  laws  of  hygiene  demand. 


404  THE    RICHES   OF   MEXICO 


CHAPTER  Y. 


PUBLIC    SECURITY. 


I.  As  a  result  of  a  long  and  sad  revolutionary  epoch,  of 
a  period  pregnant  Avith  political  reconstruction,  the  social 
elements  of  the  lower  strata  of  society  were,  judiiiiig  from 
the  stand-point  of  civilization,  at  a  very  low  ebb:  lack  of 
order,  immorality,  in  fact,  crime  was  in  Mexico  almost  the 
rule  of  the  day,  and  this  not  alone  on  the  highways,  but 
even  in  some  of  the  largest  cities. 

The  stability  of  the  political  institutions  and  the  advent 
of  the  era  of  peace,  established  a  period  of  reconstruction 
which,  naturally,  was  the  beginning  of  the  reform  of  cus- 
toms protecting  the  morality  and  ijersecuting  vices  and 
crimes. 

Two  periods  are  especially  marked  out  during  this  new 
epoch  which  is  almost  coincident  with  the  triumph  of  the 
Tuxtepec  revolution.  In  the  first  all  efforts  were  devoted 
to  the  preservation  of  order  in  the  cities  ;  in  the  second, 
which  may  be  termed  the  railway  period,  every  attention 
was  directed  to  securing  safety  on  the  public  road.  The 
first  brought  with  it  the  reform  of  the  antiquated  police 
system  in  wliich  the  men  used  to  be  drawn  from  the  lowest 
classes  of  society  and  who  were  almost  exclusively  armed 
with  the  old  Spanish  sabre.  In  their  place  was  substituted 
the  city  police  in  accordance  with  European  methods  of 
n)anagoment.  In  the  second,  during  which  decided  steps 
weie  taken  to  clear  the  highways  of  bandits,  higliwaymen, 
robbers  and  assassins,  the  rural  i)<)rue  and  excisemen 
were   constituted.     To  both   of   these   bodies  Mexico  owes 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  495 

great  benefits.  The  duties  of  the  latter  were  limited 
almost  exclusively  to  guarding  against  the  passing  of  con- 
traband articles  and  to  protecting  the  railway  traflic. 

Thanks  to  these  measures  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
was  in  1886  able  to  say  as  follows:  "It  is  satisfac- 
tory to  be  able  to  assure  you  that  for  many  years 
the  atrocious  crime  of  highway  robbery  has  entirely 
teased,  and  that  there  are  no  longer  any  public  robbers  on 
the  road,  as  Avas  the  case  formerly  when  they  were  the 
constant  terror  of  our  highways.  It  is  necessary,  hosvever, 
to  point  out,  although  it  is  with  pain  I  do  so,  that  in  the 
beginning,  immediately  after  the  establishment  of  our 
great  railroads,  attacks  were  made  under  a  new  form  more 
cruel  and  atrocious  than  ever.  The  robbers  used  every 
means  to  throw  the  train  off  the  line,  in  order  that  when 
this  was  once  done,  they  might  possess  themselves  of  the 
baggage,  merchandise,  etc."  Mr.  Romero  Rubio  spoke 
thus  upon  the  occasion  of  a  recent  wreckage  and  robbery 
on  the  Central  Railway,  and  which  caused  great  indigna- 
tion in  Mexico  among  all  classes  of  society.  This  indigna- 
tion found  vent  in  the  application  of  article  29  of  the 
Constitution,  which  sets  forth,  that,  in  cases  of  invasion,  of 
grave  disturbances  of  the  public  peace  or  any  others 
which  greatly  endanger  society  or  place  it  in  conflict,  the 
competent  authorities  may  suspend  the  guarantees  which 
the  Constitution  grants,  with  the  exception  of  those 
which  secure  life  to  a  man.  With  this  as  its  groundwork, 
the  terril)le  decree  of  the  17th  of  May,  1886,  was  sent 
forth,  which  struck  terror  into  all  evil-doers  and  utterly 
did  away  with  railway  robbers. 

The  energy  with  which  Mexico  proceeds  against  robbers 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  extract  from  the  law 
referred  to  :  "  Article  1.  The  guarantee  granted  in  part  of 
article  13,  the  first  part  of  article  19,  and  articles  20  and 
21   of  the   Federal   Constitution  are    suspended  for  road 


496  TIIE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

robbers  exclusively.  Art.  2.  Road  robbers  are;  I.  Those 
with  whom  the  intention  of  stopping  trains  on  a 
public  road  or  with  the  intention  of  robbing  the  passengers 
or  the  goods  which  are  being  conveyed  therein,  take 
away,  destroy,  change  or  burn  the  sleepers,  rails, 
screws,  switches,  or  tho  plants  which  secure  them, 
bridges,  tunnels,  platforms,  buildings  or  any  other  work 
belonging  to  a  railway.  II.  Those  who  with  the  said 
intention  cut  or  interrupt  communications  by  destroy- 
ing, burning  or  rendering  useless  the  posts,  wires 
and  apparatus  used  in  the  railway  telegraphic  system. 
III.  Those  who  with  the  purpose  of  committing  a  mis- 
demeanor against  persons  of  property,  uncouple,  render 
useless  or  destroy  the  locomotives,  wagons,  tenders  or 
other  transport  carriages  on  a  railway,  or  place  on  the  road 
hindrances  or  obstacles  which  would  prevent  the  passage  of 
trains  or  throw  them  off  the  line.  IV.  Those  who,  on  the 
public  roads,  whether  these  be  highways  or  railways,  attack 
travelers  or  passengers  with  the  intention  of  robbing, 
wounding,  killing  or  causing  any  other  damage  either 
to  goods  or  person.  Art.  3.  The  robbers  comprised 
in  numbers  I,  II  and  III  of  the  preceding  article 
if  caught  in  the  act  shall  suffer  the  punishment  of 
death,  without  further  trial  or  proceeding,  than  the  mere 
drawing  up  of  a  record  by  the  chief  of  the  appre- 
hending force,  in  which  record  shall  be  set  forth  the  fact 
that  they  were  taken  in  the  act,  and  the  identification  of 
their  persons.  Those  who  are  not  caught  in  the  very  act  but 
are  included  in  any  of  the  four  divisions  of  article  2  of  this 
law  shall  he  siunmarihj  and  ven'halhj  tried  by  tho  authorities 
whose  agents  have  made  the  apprehension,  whether  such 
authorities  bo  the  political  ones  of  the  Districts  or  tho 
Military  Commanders  of  the  Federation  or  of  the  States. 
The  duration  of  the  trial  can  in  no  case  exceed  tho  porenip- 
tory  aud   unprorogable  time  of  fifteen  days  during  which 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  497 

the  accused  can  present  their  proofs  and  defenses  which  are 
their  rights.  Within  the  said  period  sentence  of  death 
shall  be  pronounced  if  the  crime  be  proved,  and  if  the  case 
fall  under  numbers  I,  II  or  III  of  the  above  mentioned 
article  2,  or  under  number  IV  of  same  and  if  from  the  act 
death  or  a  grievous  wound  has  resulted.  When  neither 
death  nor  a  grievous  wound  has  been  the  result  in  the  case 
of  number  IV  then  a  penalty  of  10  years  imprisonment 
shall  be  imposed. 

This  has  not  been  the  only  occasion  on  which  in  Mexico 
the  suspension  of  guarantees  was  proclaimed  against  the 
enemies  of  society  and  the  disturbers  of  public  order.  In 
1869,  owing  to  the  alarming  spread  of  brigandage,  Mr. 
Juarez  was  forced  to  issue  a  decree  on  the  12th  of  April, 
and  later  on  for  like  reasons  were  sent  forth  in  succession 
the  decrees  dated  the  12th  of  March,  1871,  which  was  also 
promulgated  by  Mr.  Juarez,  the  3d  of  May,  1873,  the  28th 
of  April,  1875,  and  the  9th  of  May,  1876,  all  issued  by  Mr. 
Lerdo  de  Tejada. 

THE  RURAL  POLICE. 

II.  In  order  that  the  action  of  the  police  might  be  ex- 
tended to  the  surveillance  of  the  greater  part  of  the  national 
highways  and  especially  to  those  not  frequented  by  travel- 
ers and  on  which  the  merchandise  traffic  is  greatest,  laws 
were  made  on  the  5th  of  May,  1861,  and  the  21st  of  Jan- 
uary, 1867,  which  created  and  fitted  out  a  body  of  rural 
police.  From  the  year  1867  the  Government  made  use  of 
the  light-armed  troops  which  had  fought  for  the  Republic 
and  formed  from  them  bodies  of  police  in  order  to  clear 
the  country  of  the  robbers  and  other  bandits  which  the 
lengthy  struggle  against  French  intervention  had  left  as  a 
leofacy  to  the  Nation.  The  different  bodies  of  rural  police 
which  have  been  organized,  one  after  another  have   bee^ 

32 


498  THE    RICHES    OF    MEXICO 

called  by  various  names,  as  the  Guard  of  Commerce,  the 
Guard  of  Mexico,  the  Third  Body  of  Horse  Carbineers,  the 
Guard  of  Tepegi  del  Rio,  the  Fixed  Squadron  of  Public 
Security  of  Tepic,  etc.  These  all  rendered  important  serv- 
ices to  the  Union  Government  in  the  campaign  against 
invaders  and  traitors  and  in  the  revolutionary  movements 
which  have  taken  place  in  the  various  States  of  the  Repub- 
lic. When  peace  was  once  firmly  established,  it  fulfilled 
its  duties  as  country  police  with  all  due  regularity  and 
order. 

The  men  who  form  this  body  are  enlisted  as  volunteers 
by  a  perfect  contract,  the  fulfillment  of  which  the  Govern- 
ment guarantees  and  which  is  made  upon  certain  determined 
conditions.  The  body  is  notable  for  its  spirit  of  honor  and 
its  competence  as  well  as  for  its  discipline,  active  and 
timely  watchfulness  in  the  discharge  of  its  duties  and  has 
now  come  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  institutions  of  the 
public  administration  of  Government.  Since  the  1st  of 
April,  1869,  a  General  Inspectorship  has  been  placed  over 
the  rural  bodies  of  police.  By  this  means  the  Department 
of  the  Interior  communicates  orders  to  the  chiefs  of  the 
corps  and  watches  over  their  organization  and  good  service. 
A  regulation  issued  on  the  24th  of  June,  1880,  curtailed 
the  powers  of  inspection  and  laid  upon  the  Interior  De- 
partment, all  duties  relating  to  contracts  for  the  pur- 
chase of  arms,  horses  and  accoutrements.  The  result  was 
that  the  inspectorship  came  to  form  a  section  of  the  said 
Department.  The  vigilance  of  the  Federal  rural  police 
extends  not  merely  to  the  Federal  District,  but  also  to  the 
hijrh-roads  which  communicate  with  the  various  States,  to 
the  roads  that  join  these  high-roads,  and  even  to  the 
capitals  of  the  States  and  their  districts.  This  police  body 
is  ever  ready  with  its  assistance  in  those  places  where  its 
presence  is  needed,  for  the  Governors  are  constantly  com- 
municating to  the  Intei'ior  Department  all  events  which  may 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS.  4'J'J 

give  rise  to  any  considerable  disorder,  so  that  they  may  at 
once  secure  the  co-operation  of  the  rural  forces. 

THE    CITY    POLICE    OF    MEXICO. 

III.  Organization.  The  police  body  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  special  office,  which  again,  is  under  the  charge  of 
a  functionary  called  the  General  Inspector  of  Police,  who  in 
his  turn  is  subject  to  the  District  Government.  The  organi- 
zation of  the  police  is  as  follows :  1  general  inspector,  1 
secretary,  8  chiefs  with  their  respective  secretaries  and  em- 
ployes to  correspond  with  the  eight  divisions  into  which  the 
city  is  divided  ;  8  doctors  with  their  respective  practition 
ers  for  the  same  divisions ;  1  faculty  inspector  for  the 
service  of  the  commissaries ;  1  commander  of  reserved 
police  and  special  agents.  There  are  also  inspectors'  assist- 
ants, clerks,  employes,  subalterns,  etc. ;  a  body  of  foot  and 
horse  police  with  its  respective  commanders,  officers,  etc. 

For  police  duty  the  city  of  Mexico  is  at  present  divided 
into  eight  divisions  which  are  subaltern  police  stations. 
Each  one  of  them  has  at  its  head  an  inspector  or  chief  and 
in  addition  a  doctor  and  practitioner.  The  inspectors  settle 
the  cases  which  are  clearly  evident  of  any  misdemeanor  or 
crime  which  comes  under  their  notice.  But  in  more  im- 
portant cases  they  advise  the  District  Government  and  send 
such  cases  on  to  it.  They  also  send  on  the  depositions  to 
the  proper  judges,  and  thus  in  almost  every  case  they  take 
the  first  steps  and  make  the  first  arrangements  for  the  trial. 
Each  special  commissary  section  has  for  its  medical  service 
a  doctor  and  three  practitioners  with  various  assistants  who 
are  meritorious  and  pupils  of  the  School  of  Medicine.  Each 
medical  section  is  supplied  with  three  stretchers  made  of 
iron  and  very  light,  with  which  to  carry  the  wounded  to  the 
police  station,  where  the  wounds  are  dressed,  and  from 
thence  the  injured  are  taken  to  their  destination  within  the 


500  THE    RICHES    OF    MKXICO 

space  of  three  hours.  It  has  also  a  well  supplied  case  of 
surgical  instruments  and  the  proper  apparatus  and  imple- 
ments for  doctors.  The  Listerian  method  of  treatment  has 
been  unanimously  adopted  in  the  eight  medical  sections. 
The  doctors  attend  their  sections  from  11  to  12  o'clock 
in  the  morning  and  from  6  to  7  in  the  evening,  in  order 
that  they  may  visit  extraordinary  cases  and  attend  to 
the  business  of  their  stations,  to  which  they  must  also 
repair  whenever  they  are  required  by  the  commissary. 
There  are  always  in  the  sections  a  practitioner  on  guard 
and  another  as  a  reserve,  who  are  relieved  every  24  hours, 
beginning  at  7  o'clock  at  night  to  give  assistance  in  cases 
of  accidents.  The  practitioners  of  each  section  are  always 
present  during  the  early  hours  of  the  night.  The  com- 
missary doctors  send  every  day  duplicate  and  detailed 
accounts  to  the  visiting  inspector  and  to  the  District  Gov- 
ernment, in  which  are  set  forth,  the  name  of  the  wounded 
person,  the  kind  of  wound,  the  time  at  which  he  entered 
the  Commissary  office,  and  was  taken  cured  to  the  proper 
Commissary  or  sent  to  the  hospital,  if  the  case  was  seri- 
ous, the  mode  of  cure,  and  services  lent,  certificates  of 
deaths  that  have  taken  place,  of  the  sick  who  have  asked 
admission  into  the  hospital.  These  doctors  hold  a  meeting 
every  eight  days  under  the  presidency  of  the  Visiting 
Inspector  in  order  to  discuss  matters  that  have  come  under 
their  notice,  and  to  propose  to  the  Government  the  improve- 
ments that  may  be  found  necessary  to  introduce  into  the 
service. 

As  has  been  already  said,  there  is  an  Inspector  over  the 
Medical  Section  of  the  Commissary  whose  duty  it  is  to 
see  to  the  punctual  discharge  of  all  their  duties  and  to 
authorize  the  resolutions  proposed  for  the  improvement  of 
the  service. 

The  foot  police  perform  the  police  service  of  the  city 
and  are  made  up  of  1  colonel,  1  lieutenant-colonel,  8  com- 


AND    ITS    INSTITUTIONS. 


501 


manders,  82  officers,  1,800  policemen  cand  130  assistants. 
The  body  is  being  continually  improved,  drilled,  and 
disciplined. 

The  rule  for  the  foot  police,  that  is  to  say  their  duties 
reo-arding  the  apprehension  of  criminals,  their  watchfulness 
over  the  sanitary  arrangements,  health  and  interests  of 
their  beat,  their  assistance  to  the  citizen,  and  particularly 
to  the  helpless,  the  sick  or  the  traveler,  are  all  laid  down 
in  the  "Advices,"  which  are  properly  and  duly  imparted 
to  them  and  according  to  which  they  must  at  present  act. 
The  mounted  police  consist  of  350  men  who  are  divided 
into  companies.  For  their  military  drill  there  is  an 
academy  established ,  attended  to  by  corporals  and  sergeants, 
and  for  their  instruction  as  troopers  there  is  a  practical 
school  of  teaching  established  in  their  own  barracks. 

There  is  established  in  Mexico  at  the  present  day,  as  has 
been  said  at  the  beginning,  an  excellently  organized  force  of 
police  for  the  prevention  of  crime,  and  which  renders  very 
useful  services  to  society.  It  is  commonly  called  the  re- 
serve, and  exercises  a  constant  watchfulness  over  suspicious 
persons  and  undertakes  delicate  tasks  in  which  its  members 
avoid  the  espionage  upon  their  acts  to  which  the  ordinary 
police  are  liable,  inasmuch  as  these  latter  wear  their  uni- 
forms and  are  in  all  cases  easily  recognized.  The  men  of 
this  body  are  especially  suited  for  their  duties  owing  to 
their  intimate  knowledge  of  the  locality,  and  the  persons 
their  antecedents,  intelligence  and  honesty.  Such  is,  in 
short,  the  organization  of  the  police  of  IMexico  City,  which 
serves  as  a  model  for  the  organization  of  those  in  the  ma- 
jority of  the  State  capitals  and  large  cities  of  the  Union. 


592  THE   RICHES   OF   MEXICO. 


Before  passing  to  the  second  part  of  this  work  where  we 
will  display  the  sketch  of  the  riches  of  our  productions, 
namely,  industry,  commerce,  mining  and  agriculture,  we 
must  duly  thank  Mr.  Ireneo  Paz,  one  of  the  most  enlight- 
ened litterateur  and  scientific  men  of  Mexico,  for  his 
valuable  assistance  in  the  performing  of  this  work.  We 
are  in  debt  to  Mr.  Paz  for  much  interesting  data  concern- 
ing the  productions  of  our  Country.  That  undoubtedly 
will  i)rove  very  useful  for  those  that  desire  to  know  the 
productive  facilities  of  our  territory  and  invest  in  Mexican 

enterprises. 

The  Author. 


IKDEZ.  503 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX. 


BOOK  I. 
PRELIMINARY  SURVEY. 

PREFACE. 

PAGE 

I.  Mexico  and  Her  Revolutions 7 

II.  Era  of  Peace 10 

CHAPTER  I. 

Department  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

I.   The  Existent  Treaties  before  the  French  Intervention 12 

II.  Frontier  Matters  —  Agreements  relative  to  Boundary-lines 
with  the  United  States  —  Agreements  relative  to  the  Boun- 
daries of  Guatemala 14 

III.  Commercial  Treaties  —  Norwaj'  and  Sweden  —  France  — 
Great  Britain  —  The  Japanese  Empire  —  Equator  —  The  Do- 
minican Republic  —  Italy  —  United  States 28 

IV.  Extradition  Treaties  —  The  United  States  —  Belgium  — 
Spain  —  Great  Britain .   36 

V.  International  Agreements.  —  Telegraphic  Arrangement  be- 
tween  Mexico    and     Guatemala  —  International    Agreement 

relative  to  the  Publicatipn  of  Custom  House  Duties 40 

VI.   Claims  —  United    States  —  Spain  —  Guatemala  —  Economic 

Begulations 41 

VII.  Mexican    Diplomatic    Body  —  Diplomatic    Representations  — 

Consular  Agencies 46 

CHAPTER   II. 

Interior  Department 

I.   General   Works 55 

II.  Postal  Service. —  "Written  Correspondence  —  Periodical  Pub- 
lications —  All  prints  not  embraced  in  the  Former  Classes  — 
Diverse  Matter  —  New  Postal  Code  —  Economic  Regulations.      55 
III.  Universal  Postal  Union  —  Postal  Congress  of  Lisbon 64 


504  INDEX. 


TV.  Postal    Conventions  —  United    States  —  French    Republic  — 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland  —  German  Empire G8 

V.  Mail  Steamers  —  Imperial  German  Mail  Harrison  Line  — 
New  York  and  Cuba  Mail  Steamship  Company  —  General 
French  Company  of  Steam  Transports  —  General  Transatlan- 
tic Compan)'  —  "West  Indian  and  Pacific  Steamship  Company 
—  Transatlantic  Steamship  Company  of  Barcelona  — Harrison 
Steamship  Line  —  New  York,  Mobile  and  Mexico  Steamship 
Company  —  Line  of  Steamers  between  Progreso,  New  Orleans 
and  New  York  —  Line  of  Mr.  Joaquin  Pvedo  —  Steamship 
Company  of  the  Pacific  Coast  —  Line  of  Steamers  of  Mr. 
James  N.  Porch  —  Line  of  Mr.  Robert  R.  Symon  —  Line  of 
Mr.  Manuel  Romero  combined  with  the  Steamers  of  the  Span- 
ish Transatlantic  Company  —  Pacific  Mail  Company  —  Mexi- 
can Company  of  Navigation  of  the  River  Grijalva  —  Company 
of  Navigation  on  the  Rivers  of  Sotavento  of  Veracruz 70 

VI.  Postal  Statistics 79 

VII.   Conclusion 83 

CHAPTER  III. 
Department  of  Justice. 

I.  Federal  Juridical  Poicer  —  Supreme  Court  —  Circuit  Courts 

and  District  Judicatures 85 

II.  Right  of  Habeas  Corpus  (Ley  de  Araparo) 89 

III.  Code  of  Proceedings  in  the  Federal  Jurisdiction 91 

IV.  Code  of  Commerce 91 

V.  Civil  Code  and  its  Code  of  Proceedings 93 

VI.  Penal  Code  and  its  Code  of  Proceedings 95 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Department  of  Colonization,  Industry  and  Commerce. 

I.   Great  Impulse  to  the  xiffairs  of  this  Department — Geography — 

Geographical  Exploring  Committee 96 

II.  Department  of  Natural  Uistory 102 

III.  Statistics  —  General  Management  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics..     105 

IV.  Cartography 113 

V.  Observatories  —  The  Central  Magnetic  Meteorological  Obser- 
vatory— The  Meteoroloiiical  Astronomical  Observatory  of 
Mazatlan  —  The  National  Astronomical  Observatory  of  Ta- 
cubaya  —  The  Central  Astronomical  Observatory 116 

VI.  Public.  Monuments  —  Monument  of  Columbus  —  Hypso- 
graphic  Monument  —  Monument  to  Cuauthemoc  —  Monu- 
ment of  Chapultepec 132 


INDEX.  605 

PAGE 

VII.   Weights  and  Measures  —  Contracts  Relative  to  "Weights  and 

Measures  —  The  Intei'national  Metric  Convention 140 

VIII.  Mexican  National  Currency > 147 

IX.  Exhibitions  —  Exhibition  of  Philadelphia  —  The  Exhibitions 

of  New  Orleans :  Paris  exhibition 155 

X.  National  Exhibitions. —  General  Exhibition  of  the  Industry 
of  Mexico  —  Tlie  National  Exhibition  of  Mexico  of  the  year 
1875  — The  Merida  Exhibition  — The  Paebla  Exhibition  — 
The  Toluca  Exhibition  —  Monterrey  Industrial  Exhibition  — 
The  Querdtaro  Exhibition  —  Guadalajara  Exhibition — Arti- 
cles Awarded  Prizes. —  Commercial  Museum  of  Guadalajara     163 

CHAPTER  V. 

Department  of  Public  Works. 

I.   The  Neio  Secretaryship. —  The  law  of  May  8th,  1891  — Begin 
its  labors  in  the  month  of  July,  1891 170 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Treasury  and  Public  Credit  Department. 

I.   The  Public  Debt 172 

II.  Loans ]  75 

III.  Bailroad  Debt 176 

IV.  National  Debt 180 

V.  Actual  Condition  of  the  Public  Treasury 182 

VI.  Mexico  Revenues  and  Expenditures 184 

CHAPTER  VII. 
War  Department. 

I.   Work  of  Organization 186 

II.  General  Ordina.nce. —  Recruiting — Recruits — Army  Disburse- 
ments —  Term  of  Service  —  Generals  — Retirement  — Pro- 
motion —  Morality. , 189 

III.  Organization  of  the  War  Department.  —  General  Organiza- 
tion of  the  Army  —  The  Special  Body  of  the  Staff  —  Body 
of  Engineers  and  Military  College  —  Body  of  Artillery  — 
Establishments  for  making  War  Materials  —  Military 
Schools  —  Infantry  —  Cavalry  —  Military  Medical  Body  — 
Medical  Military  Practice  School  —  The  Police  Body  of  the 
Army  —  National  Battalion  of  Invalids  —  The  Reserve  of 
Commanders  and  Officers  —  MUitary  Tribunals  and  Police. .     198 

IV.  Military  Tribunal  their  Organization  and  Competency. — The 
Court  of  Inquiry — Military  Judicial  Police  —  Crimes,  Mis- 
demeanors and  Penalty 226 


506  INDEX. 

PAGE 

v.  Latest    Changes  in    the    Code    of   Military  Justice  —  Tribu- 
nals —  Of  Appeals  —  Of  Penalties 236 

VI.  National  Navy  and  Organization  Works  —  The  present  Ad- 
ministration of  the  Navy  —  The  National  Fleet 240 

VII.   The  Standing  Army 249 


BOOK  II. 
GEOGRAPHICAL  DESCRIPTION  AND  POPULATION. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Geographical  Description  of  Mexico. 

1.  Situation  and  boundaries 253 

II.  Mountain    System  —  Valleys  —  Elevation  of    the  principal 
mountains 256 

III.  Geological  Formation  —  Volcanoes 259 

IV.  Geological  Commission  of  Mexico 263 

V.  Natural    Wonders  —  "Barranca  de  las    tres  PeSas  "  —  Falls 

of  Juanacatlan  —  Falls  of  Regla —  Grotto  of  Cacahuamilpa  — 

Geysers  of  "  San  Andres  "  and  "  Cuescomate." 264 

VI.  Hydrographic    System  —  Rivers  —  Lakes  —  Temperature    of 

Different  Waters  of  Mexico 265 

VII.  Climate  —  Temperature   and  Barometric    Pressure  —  Hot, 
Temperate  and     Cold  Lands  —  Mean  Temperature  of    the 
Three  Zones  —  Humidity  —  Rains —  Winds  —  Humidity  of  the 
Winds  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico  —  Temperature  of  the  Winds.     267 
VIII.  Meteorological  Observations —  General  Summary 276 


CHAPTER  II. 
The  States. 

I.  Political  Division.  —  Territorial    Extension  —  Astronomical 
position  of  the  capitals 277 


CHAPTER  III. 
Population  and  Races. 

I.  Beginning  of   the    Mexican    Civilizaticn. —  Ancient  civiliza- 
tion —  Ruins  —  Immigrations —  Ancient  Monuments 282 

1 1 .  Infiahitanta  of  Anahuac  —  Statistics 286 

III.  Population    of    the   States. —  Population    of    the    principal 

cities  —  Density  of  Population 288 


INDEX.  507 

PAGE 
IV.  Predominant  Baces. —  The  Indian  in  different  social  strata  — 
His     road     to    civilization     and     progress  —  The     Spanish 
American 295 

V.  Etnographic  Description. —  Spaniard  residents  in  Mexico 297 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Immigration  and  Colonization. 

I.  Primary  Laws 302 

II.  Laws    in    Force    Governing    Immigration  —  Decree    of     loth 

December,  1883  —  Rights  and  duties  of  immigrants 305 

Foreigners  and  Naturalization.  —  Expatriation  —  Conditions  for 
naturalization  in  the  Republic  —  Certificates  of  naturaliza- 
tion —  Rights  and  duties  of  the  foreigners 308 

III.  Irnmigratonj  Movement. —  Movement  of  passengers  at  the 
different  ports  —  Table  of  immigration  —  Foreign  immi- 
gration and  indegnous  labor 315 

IV.  Colonies. —  First  steps  —  Colonizing  companies  —  Colonies 
•'  Manuel  Gonzalez,"  **  Porfirio  Diaz  "  — "  Carlos  Pacheco." — 
"  Fernandez  Leal  "  —  "Topolobampo"  —  Table  of  the  colon- 
ies—  Concession  for  colonization  from  1878  to  1891 — Purchase 
and  sale  contracts  of  uncultivated  lands  —  Unoccupied  Gov- 
ernment Lands 321 


BOOK  III. 
SOCIAL  ELEMENTS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Religion. 

I .  Behgion  —  Religious  Teaching 335 

II,  Catholic  Beligion  —  The  Clergy  in  the  end  of  the  XVIII 
Century  —  Rents  and  properties  —  Constitution  of  1824  — 
Ecclesiastical  Corporation  in  the  Federal  District  in  1856  — 
"  Desamortizatism  "  Law  —  "  Nationalization  Law  " 335 

III.  Legal  Dispositions  Concerning  Religions 340 

IV.  Economical  Organization  of  the  Catholic  Religion  (priest- 
hood)   343 

V.  Protestant  Beligion  —  Protestant  Missions  in  1892 —  (The 
Field  —  The  Workers  —  Churches  —  Schools  —  Publishing  In- 
terests —  properties) —  Historical  of  the  Protestant  Churches  in 


508  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Mexico — American  Church  Missionary  Society,  —  Protestant 
Episcopal  Missionary  and  Churches  —  The  Presbyterian  Mis- 
sion —  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  —  Baptist  Church  — 
"  American  Friends  Society  " 346 


CHAPTER  II. 
Public  Instruction. 

I.  Education  in  the  time  of  Aztecs  —  During  the  Spanish  Domi- 
nation —  After  Independence — Preliminary  laws  in  Education 

and  Instruction •  •  350 

II.   Compulsoi-y  Education 335 

III.  Pedagogical  Congress  —  First  Congress  of  Instruction  — 
Second  Congress  —  Instruction  Law  in  force  in  the  Federal 
District  —  Superior  Board  of  Public  Instruction  —  Prizes  to 

the  Professors 356 

IV.  Superior  Instniction  in  the  Federal  District — School  of  Medi- 
cine —  National  Medical  Institute  of  Mexico  —  National  Mex- 
ican Medical  Congress  —  National  School  of  Engineers  —  Na- 
tional School  of  Agriculture  and  Veterinary  Surgery  —  Higher 
School  of  Commerce  and  AdministratioQ  —  National  School 
of  Arts  and  Trades  for  Men  —  National  School  of  Arts  and 
Trades  for  Women  —  Correctional  School  of  Trades  and 
Professions — National  School  of  Fine  Arts  —  National 
Conservatory  of  Music — Military  College — (Professors  — 
Pupils  —  Studies  of  Infantry  and  Cavalry  Officers  —  Studies  of 
Artillery  Officers — Studies  of  Engineers — Studies  of  Mid- 
shipmen of  the  National  Navy  —  Examinations)  —  "La  Paz  " 
College  for  Young  Ladies —  National  School  for  the  Blind  — 
School  for  the  Deaf  Mutes  —  Industrial  School  for  Orphan 
Boys  —  School  of  Jurisprudence  —  Normal  School  of  Pro- 
fessors   • 363 

V.  Libraries  — Scientmc  and  Literary  Societies  — Museums  — 
Archiuological  Monuments — Journalism  in  Mexico — (Scien- 
tific Literary  Publications  —  Periodical  Publications) 413 

VI.  Primary  Education  in  the  Federal  District  ~  Public  Instruc- 
tion in  the  States  m  the  year  1 S90  and  1 892 427 


CHAPTER  III. 
Public  Bkneficknce. 

I.  History  of  Beneficence 430 

II.  Hospitals  — \losY>\t&\fi  of  "San  Andres  "  —  "  Morelos  " — 
"San  nipolito  Asylum  for  Insane  men  —  Asylum  for  Insane 
women  — "Juarez" 433 


INDEX.  509 


III.  Asylums  —  Foundling  Asylum  —  Poor  House  —  Lying-in  Hos- 
pital and  Asylum  for  Infants 439 

IV.  Schools  —  School  for  the  Blind  —  School  of  Arts  and  Trades 
for  "Women  —  The  Industrial  School  at  Santiago  —  Correc- 
tional School  —  Correctional  School  of  Trades  and  Professions     444 

V.  National  Loan  Office  "  Monte  de  Fiedad  " 447 

VI.  Central  Laboratory  —  Store  House  —  Free  Consulting  Rooms.  ■  449 

VII.  Benecolent    Listitutions    of    the    States — Veracruz,    Nuevo 

Leon,  Chiapas,  Michoacan,  Tabasco,  Sonora,  Guerrero,  Col- 

ima,  Guanajuato,  Durango,  Queretaro,  Chihuahua,  Hidalgo, 

Morelos,  Jalisco,  Mexico,    Aguascalientes,  Oaxaca,   Tamau- 

lipas,  Zacatecas 450 

VIII.  Private  Chanties 463 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Health  axd  Hygiene. 

I.  Sanitary    Conditions     of    the    Mexican    Sepublic  —  Typhus 

Fever — Yellow  Fever  —  Small-pox — Pneumonia 465 

II.  Creation  and  History  of  the  Chief  Board  of  Health  —  Sta- 
tistical Department  —  The  Sanitary  Inspectorship  —  Epi- 
demics —  Quarantine  —  Inspection  of  the  Northern  Frontier 
and  in  communication  with  Guatemala  —  Means  for  pre- 
venting the  infection  of  one  town  by  another  —  Measures 
for    checking    the  ravages  of    the  disease  —  The    Sanitary 

Code  —  Health  Congress 467 

m.  Sanitary  Police  —  Organization  of  the  Board  of  Health  — 
Sanitary  service  in  the  Ports  —  Land  Quarantine  —  Medical 

Statistics 482 

IV.  Drainage  of  the  "  Valley  of  Mexico  ^^  —  Drainage  and  sew- 
ers —  Cemeteries 487 

CHAPTER  V. 
Public  Security. 

I.  Public  Security  before  the  Peace — Railway  Period  —  Law  of 

17th  May,  1886,  against  criminals 494 

II.  The  Rural  Police 497 

III.  The  City  Police  of  Mexico  —  Organization — Foot  Police  — 
Detectives 499 


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